




. 







Copyright N°_ 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 















































' 





HOW TO BECOME 
A COMPETENT MOTORMAN 



MODERN FOUR-MOTOR EQUIPMENT TROLLEY CAR 























































HOW TO BECOME A 

COMPETENT MOTORMAN 


A PRACTICAL BOOK ON THE PROPER METHOD 
OF OPERATING A STREET RAILWAY MOTOR¬ 
CAR; WITH INSTRUCTIONS HOW TO OVER¬ 
COME TROUBLES ON THE ROAD 


BY 

VIRGIL B. LIVERMORE 

INSPECTOR, N. Y. C. H. R. R.; FORMERLY CHIEF INSTRUCTOR WITH 
THE BROOKLYN RAPID TRANSIT CO. 


AND 

JAMES R. WILLIAMS 

MECHANICAL EXPERT DEPARTMENT, GALENA-SIGNAL OIL CO. 
FORMERLY GENERAL FOREMAN OF SHOPS, BROOKLYN RAPID TRANSIT CO. 




NEW YORK 

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 

23 Murray and I 9 O $ 27 Warren Sts. 


f 
















fuBRARY of GONGKF.SS 
IwoGopies rtectsi»<xi 

MAY 2! 1908 

jMpiMiftH c..iiry 

'Mcuj n 

GLHS? A AACi M'j> 

20760 € 

^OH'r a. 


Copyright , 1908 

By D. Van Nostrand Company 


4 / 




1 * ♦ 

9 • 

* • • 


The Plimpton Press Norwood Mass. U.S.A. 


cr\ 





PREFACE 


This book is addressed to motormen, and to those who 
desire to follow the calling of motormen. It is written by two 
practical men who have by actual experience learned just 
which things a competent motorman must know. Being writ¬ 
ten from the standpoint of the motorman by practical men is a 
guarantee that the style and contents are perfectly suited to 
the purpose of the book. The aim of the book is to enable 
any one to thoroughly understand the construction and opera¬ 
tion of modern electric cars and locomotives. A motorman who 
thoroughly understands the machine with which he is working 
is in a position to save a lot of money for the company employ¬ 
ing him, and it is the man who saves money for the company 
who is sure of his job and at the same time stands the best 
show of being advanced and promoted to the responsible and 
Well-paid positions which always occur in large corporations. 
The manner in which a car is started and run makes a great 
difference in the amount of current that the car uses up, and 
also in the amount of time and money that have to be expended 
on repairing the car and keeping it in running order. Every 
time that a car is put into the shop for repairs, money is lost 
both in the repairing of the car and in its earnings, which are 
stopped while it is not running. When a car refuses to run for 
any reason, a well-informed motorman can make an investi¬ 
gation, find out the trouble, and in many cases make the nec- 


VI 


essary repairs on the spot, thus keeping the car in operation 
and preventing further damage. 

The position of the motorman is one of responsibility and 
dignity and is becoming more so every day. It is estimated 
that a hundred millions of dollars are spent in the building and 
development of electric railways in this country alone, every 
year. Steam roads are built only where for some cause or 
other electric roads cannot be built, and in cities and towns 
electric railways have entirely supplanted all other kinds. Be¬ 
sides this, the past year has seen the substitution of electricity 
for steam on one of the most important railroads in the United 
States, and among engineers it is freely predicted that this is 
only the beginning of a great change in that direction. As a 
result of all this, motormen will always be in demand. But as 
the size and value of the cars becomes greater and it becomes 
more and more difficult to operate them properly, there will be 
a weeding out of the ignorant and incompetent people and only 
the skilful and well-informed men will be wanted. The motor- 
man is responsible for the car and the lives of his passengers 
and also for the lives of people crossing streets in front of his 
car, and it is for this reason that some states require that every 
man who wishes to run a car must pass an examination to show 
that he is fit to take this responsibility. More states are pass¬ 
ing this law all the time and soon it will be impossible to run 
a car anywhere in this country without first passing this exam¬ 
ination. The contents of this book, if mastered, will enable 
any one to pass any examination that may be given. 

Great attention has been given to detailed descriptions 
of the different car equipments in use throughout the country. 
The motorman should read carefully the description of the 


VI1 


car that he is operating and learn all about it; the descriptions 
of other types of cars are of less importance, but should be un¬ 
derstood by all up-to-date and ambitious motormen. Wher¬ 
ever possible the well-known and tested method of questions 
and answers has been used, but descriptions have been used 
throughout wherever needed. A great deal of space has been 
devoted to troubles and accidents , each part of the car being 
treated separately. Air-brakes have been treated in some de¬ 
tail, but as there are already many very complete books on 
this subject it is considered more valuable to devote most of 
the space to electrical matters. One of the authors is at present 
engaged in locating and correcting troubles on the cars of one 
of the most important electric railway systems in the world, 
and feels that he knows what troubles are likely to occur. 

The book is simply written for the use of motormen who 
do not find time to study algebra and the higher mathematics 
so there are no mathematical signs in the book. The intro¬ 
ductory chapter supplies the elements of electricity that will be 
needed to understand the book, but it is earnestly recommended 
that all motormen desiring further information read Swoope’s 
“Lessons in Practical Electricity” which treats the subject 
very simply and thoroughly. The chapter on the prevention 
of accidents will be found of great value to every one. 

In conclusion the authors wish to express their thanks to 
the Westinghouse Co. and General Electric Co. for permission 
to use cuts and information concerning their products. 

Jas. R. Williams. 

V. B. Livermore. 









CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Abbreviations.144 

Accidents .238 

Air Brake, Application, Service and Emergency . . 152 

Automatic, Catechism on.191 

Automatic System.163 

Christensen, Automatic.186 

Christensen, Straight, Instructions for Oper¬ 
ating .157 

Merritt, Instructions for Operating . . . 161 

New York.242 

Straight.149, 152 

Base, Trolley.105 

Brake, Hand.109 

Power.148 

Power off at.134 

Price Hydraulic, Instructions for Operating . . 156 

Valve Operation, Proper Method of . . . . 154 

Circuit Breaker, Magnetic.127 

Circuit, Grounded Lamp.130 

Lamp.128 

Motor, in Connection with G. E. M. Control C-6 
Controller. 74 


IX 














X 

PAGE 

Circuit, Open.114, 130 

Short.130 

Cars, Laying up of.155 

Questions and Answers on Operation of Electric 212 

Cocks, Drain and Cut-out.151 

Compressor, Air.149 

Conduit System . 131 

Questions and Answers on Operation 
of.132 

Control, G. E., M with C-6 Controller.68 

Rheostat, System of .13 

W. H. Unit Switch Group.89 

Controller, Circuits of G. E.27, 22 

Curtis.19 

G. E. & W. H. .16, 17 

G. E. K-6.44 

G. E. K-8 or 9.52 

G. E. E-12.65 

G. E. K—14.48 

Sprague, G. E. Master C-35 .... 78 

troubles.107 

Walker. 20 

W. H. 28-A.55 

W. H. 28-K. B.59 

Current, Direction of, with Motor Circuit . . . . 15^ 

Direction of, with G. E. K-jo or n Con¬ 
troller .35 

Cylinder, Brake.ic;o 























XI 


Defects ....... 

in Motors . . . . 

“Dont’s”. 

Fuse and Fuse Boxes. 

“Noark”. 

Gauge, Air. 

Duplex. 

Governor, Pump . 

Damps. 

Lightning Arrester 
Motor, Compressor . . . . 

Defects in . 
Description of 
Multiple Unit System of 

Reservoir. 

Rules for Conductors 
for Motormen 
General. 

Signals, Railway. 

Slack Adjuster, Brake . 

Catechism of . 

Switch, Main Motor 

Lamp. 

Reversing . 

Terms, Electrical. 

Train Line. 

Making up a . 
Operation of . 


PAGE 

no, 156 
121 
144, 162 

125, 156 

• 145 

• I5 1 

. 168 

. 150 

. 99 

. 125 

• T 55 
121 

11 

. 66 

• I 5 I 

. 230 

• 234 
219 

209 

. 165 

. 165 

124 

129 

42 

• I 43 

. 67 

95? T 9° 
. 96 































XU 

PAGE 

Troubles on Road, How to Overcome them . . . 203 

What to do in case of . 107, 98 

Units, Electrical.11 

Valves .150, 165 

Emergency, Conductor’s and Safety . . . 168, 190 

Engineer’s.159 

Operation of M-2.169 

Operation of R-2.179 

Triple and Feed.167 








LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGURE PAGE 

Frontispiece. Modem, Four-Motor Equipment Trolley Car 

1. Magnet. 3 

2. Motor Diagram, Simple Method. 5 

3. Circuit Diagram . 7 

4. No. 8,760, G. E. 57-50 H. P. Motor.12 

5. T. H. Rheostat 51 D.14 

6. Grid Diverter.15 

7. Walker Controller.21 

8. G. E. Parallel Controller, K-2.28 

9. Wiring Diagram, K-2 Controller.30 

10. K-n Series Parallel Controller.36 

11. Wiring Diagram, K-n Controller.38 

12. K-6 Series Parallel Controller.44 

13. Wiring Diagram, K-6 Controller.46 

14. Wiring Diagram, K-8 Controller.53 

15. Westinghouse 28 K. B. Controller.60 

16. Wiring Diagram, 2-K 27 Controller, G. E. Motors .... 63 

17. Wiring Diagram, type M Control, C-6 Controllers .... 69 

18. G. E. C-6 Controller.71 

19. Wiring Diagram, Sprague General Electric Multiple Unit Con¬ 

trol System. ... 79 

20. W. H. Current Limit Relay.90 

20 a. Wiring Diagram 13-Cylinder Switch Group, with Line Switch 91 

20 b-c. Unit Switch Control .93 

20 d-e. Reverse Switch.93 

20/. W. H. Muett Contactor Box.94 

20 g. Coupler Sockets.94 

21. Peckham Swivel Truck 14, D. S.103 

22. Diagram of G. E. Controller Connections.115 

23. Diagram of G. E. Controller Connections.117 

xiii 

























XIV 


FIGURE PAGE 

24. Diagram of G. E. Controller Connections.118 

25. Diagram of G. E. Controller Connections.120 

26. Armature.122 

27. W. H., M. M. Switches.124 

28. Single Pole Fuse Block.125 

29-30. MP Lightning Arresters.126 

31. G. E. Circuit-breaker.127 

32. W. H. Automatic Circuit-breaker.128 

33. Lamp-circuit Diagram.129 

34. Snap Switch for Lighting Circuits.129 

34§. Conduit Plow. facing 132 

35-6. “Noark” Fuse and Box.146, 147 

37. W. H. Compressor.149 

38. Diagram, Straight Air-brake Equipment.153 

39. Christensen Air-Brake Equipment.158 

40. Diagram of W. H., AMM Tract ion-brake Equipment . . . 164 

41. M-2 Triple Valve.170 

42. M Triple Valve, Release Position (cross-section) 171 

43. M Triple Valve, Service Position (cross-section) . . . . 172 

44. M Triple Valve, Service-Lap Position (cross-section) . . . 173 

45. M Triple Valve, Graduated-Release-Lap Position (cross-section) 174 

46. M Triple Valve, Emergency Position (cross-section) . . . 176 

47. R-i. Triple Valve.178 

48. R Triple Valve, Release Position (cross-section) . . . . 179 

49. R Triple Valve, Service Position (cross-section).181 

50. R Triple Valve, Service Lap Position (cross-section) . . . 182 


51. R Triple Valve, Graduated-Release-Lap Position (cross-section) 184 

52. R Triple Valve, Emergency Position (cross-section). . . . 185 

53. Semaphore Signals. facing 21 1 



















COMPETENT MOTORMEN 


In order to understand clearly what takes place in an elec¬ 
tric motor when the current is turned on, it is necessary that we 
devote a few moments to a definition and consideration of the 
terms and phrases commonly used in electrical practice. 

For all practical purposes it might be said that electricity 
flows in copper and other metals very much as water does in 
pipes. The difference is that while the water-pipe is hollow, 
the electrical conductor is solid, but if we regard it as carrying 
the current in the same way as a wick carries oil, the compar¬ 
ison becomes clear. 

In the flow of water there are several things to consider, 
viz., — the force or pressure, generally measured in pounds 
per square inch, the quantity of water flowing, generally meas¬ 
ured in gallons or in cubic feet, and the resistance of the pipe 
or faucet, which, in conjunction with the pressure, determines 
the quantity of flow. 

In two separate water-pipe systems, if the pressures and 
the resistances of the pipes and faucets be the same in each, 
the quantities of flow will be the same. Any increase in pres¬ 
sure will result in more flow, and any increase in resistance will 
result in less flow, and vice versa. 

In electricity we meet with almost precisely the same con¬ 
ditions. There is the pressure, voltage, or electro-motive force 


2 


(c.m.f.) measured in volts, the resistance measured in ohms., 
and the flow measured in amperes. 

Conductors are substances which conduct or carry elec¬ 
tricity. All metals are conductors, though some are better than 
others. By a good conductor is meant one which has a low 
resistance or which would carry a large amount of current at 
a given pressure. A two-inch pipe carries more water than a 
one-inch pipe; a copper wire carries more current than an iron 
wire. Silver, copper, aluminum, and iron are the conductors 
which come into use in everyday practice. Silver is the best 
conductor, but owing to its high cost it is used only in delicate 
instruments where its high power of conducting is more impor¬ 
tant than considerations of cost. Next comes copper; this is 
generally used in all electrical work excepting where iron can 
be substituted. But as copper is a much better conductor than 
iron or steel (about eight times better) the iron conductor would 
have to be eight times as large to carry the same current. It 
is only in places where size does not count, as in third rails, 
that iron is used. After copper comes aluminum. This is 
used where weight is a consideration. It is only half as good 
a conductor as copper and therefore has to be twice as large 
for the same current, but it is only about one sixth as heavy 
as copper, so that a conductor of aluminum, though twice as 
duck, would be only about one third as heavy as one of copper 
of the same current-carrying capacity. 

Insulators are subtances which do no't carry electricity. 
Ebonite, glass, mica, paper, paraffine, shellac, wood, cotton, 
silk, and oil are insulators. Where two wires have to run side 
by side in a small space and are crowded together, but where 
the current must not leak from one to the other, each must be 


3 


wrapped in an insulator covering. These are called insulated 
wires. Where a wire is supported on a pole, it is insulated by 
being carried on a glass insulator which will not carry the cur¬ 
rent from the wire to the pin. 

Electricity has two effects when flowing in a wire, viz., 
heating and magnetism. Whenever a current of electricity 



Fig. i. — Magnet. Illustrations. 


flows in a conductor, it heats that conductor. If the conductor 
is small enough the heat is very intense, as in the incandescent 
lamp or the car heater. 

If a piece of iron has some insulated wire coiled around it, 
and a current is passed through the wire, the iron will be a 
strong magnet while the current flows, but will lose its magnet¬ 
ism as soon as the current is turned off. 

A magnet is a piece of iron or steel which has the property 
of attracting other pieces of iron or steel. The two ends of 
a magnet are different. They will both attract iron, but if 
one end of a second magnet is brought near an end of the first 
one suspended by a string at the middle (see figure) the follow¬ 
ing facts will be noted: If we call the ends of the first magnet 

















































































4 


No. i and No. 2, and the ends of the second magnet No. 3 
and No. 4, then if No. 3 is brought near to No. 2 they will 
attract each other, but if No. 3 be brought near to No. 1 they 
will repel each other. Also No. 4 will attract No. 1 but will 
repel No. 2. This shows that there must be some difference 
between the ends of the magnets or they would act alike. This 
attraction and repulsion between magnets is the principle on 
which electric motors are built. In fact, the electric motor 
consists of a stationary magnet or “ field,” and a movable mag¬ 
net, or “armature,” attached to a shaft or axle. The field and 
armature are so arranged that they cannot touch each other, 
though the armature can revolve very near the field. The 
moving magnet is drawn to the fixed magnet, and just as it 
arrives the current is turned off so that it flies past. As soon 
as it passes the center of the field the current is turned on again 
in the opposite direction so that they now repel each other. 
And so on, as long as the current flows, the movable armature 
is kept revolving. This turns the shaft and the shaft turns 
the car a.xle. 

The connections of the motor used in railway practice gen¬ 
erally, are shown in the accompanying diagram (Fig. 2). This 
is the connection scheme for the “series” motor. This is 
called a series motor because the fields and armature are con¬ 
nected in series , which means that the current passes through 
the armature and fields one after the other. There are other 
kinds of motors, but as the scries motor is practically the only 
one used on railways in this country, it alone will be consid¬ 
ered. The current enters at a, passes around the fields, F , 
F', making them magnets, then to the brush b which touches 
the commutator C, then through the armature A, back to the 


5 


commutator where the brush c touches it, and out at D. This 
simple diagram is for a motor having only two poles, but if 
there are four or more poles the scheme of connections is the 
same. 

Railway motors are of the box type, that is, they are 
completely enclosed in a cast-iron box which is so arranged 



as to be part of the motor. The reason for this is that 
water and mud which would greatly injure the motor are 
thus kept out. 

Electric currents for railway purposes are generated in a 
machine called a dynamo. The dynamo is very much like a 
large motor in construction. It is driven by a steam engine 
and gives out a current of electricity. The current flows out 
of the machine at the positive or (+) end through the machines 
that are being driven, and back to the dynamo which it enters 
at the negative or (—) end. The path that the current follows, 
made up of the dynamo, the trolley wire, the car wiring and 

















6 


motor, the track return circuit to the dynamo, is known as the 
circuit , also any path that a current follows is known as a cir¬ 
cuit. For instance, the wiring of a car is known as the car 
circuit, and the path that the current takes within the arma¬ 
ture of a motor is known as the armature circuit. 

The word equipment is frequently used to denote the cir¬ 
cuit of the car, including the wiring, the motors, the resistances, 
the lights, and all of the other special parts that the current 
passes through. 

Wherever current flows in a piece of machinery, it must 
naturally enter at some point and leave at another. It is cus¬ 
tomary to call that point at which it enters, the positive end, 
and it is generally denoted by the plus sign (-f); that point at 
which the current leaves the machine or circuit is called the 
negative end and is denoted by the minus sign (—), excepting 
in the case of the dynamos, where it leaves at the ( + ) end and 
enters at the (—) end. 

A short circuit or ground occurs when, through some acci¬ 
dent, the insulation on a wire becomes burnt or otherwise 
destroyed, and the enclosed wire touches another wire or some 
metal part of the machine. The current will then follow the 
shortest path to the negative point instead of following the reg¬ 
ular circuit as it would have to do if the insulation were perfect. 
This is why it is called a short circuit. As the negative point 
often connects with the ground or earth, the short circuit is 
sometimes called a ground. 

An open circuit occurs where, through some accident, the 
conductor has become parted. The circuit is then destroyed 
or open and the current cannot pass. Open circuits are often 
caused by the wires’ being burnt off owing to the carrying of 


7 


too great a current, or to the fact that something has fallen on 
the wire, cutting it off. 

There are three general modes of connecting up electric 
circuits which are in common use and which it is necessary to 
thoroughly understand. These are shown in Fig. 3. At a 
is shown what is termed a series connection. This means that 
the current enters the circuit (which here consist of lamps 

(+) —CMD-O-O-O— H 



denoted by the small circles) at the ( + ) end and flows through 
one lamp after another till it reaches the (—) end of the circuit. 
At b is shown a parallel circuit. The current enters at the ( + ) 
end, splits at the point where the two wires connect with the 
positive wire, and flows through the two lamps at the same time; 
that is, part of the current flows through each, joining again in the 
negative wire. At c is shown a series-parallel circuit. The two 
lamps marked 1,2, and 3 are a series, which we shall call series 
No. 1; the two lamps 4, 5, and 6 are another series which we shall 







8 


call series No. 2; now these two series are each a circuit, and 
the two circuits are in parallel. The current flows in at the (+) 
end, divides into two parts, which flow in the two circuits 1 and 
2, at the same time and then come together at the (—) end. 
There may be more than two circuits in parallel in b and in c. 
Only two are shown here as being simpler to understand, but 
where there are more circuits the principle is precisely the 
same. 

Where a current splits, as at b and c , and part of the current 
flows through one circuit and part through the other, the word 
shunt is frequently used to describe one of the paths. For 
instance, we may say in the above case (c) that part of the cur¬ 
rent is shunted through circuit No. 2. This is generally done 
when one of the circuits is much larger than the other, and 
takes more current; then the smaller circuit which takes the 
smaller amount of current is called a shunt. 

Air is, generally speaking, a very good insulator, and bare 
wires which are separated by a gap of dry air are generally 
pretty well insulated from each other. If the pressure or 
voltage between the wires is very high, and the space is very 
small, then it might happen that the current will jump the gap 
and flow across in the air. This is rare and happens only 
with the highest pressure currents. On the other hand, if 
the two conductors are brought together so that current flows, 
and then separates, the current will continue to flow in the gap 
between the wires till the gap gets too long for the current. 
If the wires are separated just a small amount, the current will 
continue to flow steadily, giving out great heat and light. This 
is the principle of the common arc lamp and the flame which 
results is called the arc. In the arc lamp the two wires end in 


9 


sticks of carbon which are brought together for an instant 
until current flows; they are then separated about one half an 
inch and the current continues to flow in the gap, giving out a 
great amount of light. If metallic wires were used they would 
melt and run, but carbon burns very slowly and does not melt 
at all, so it lasts much longer than any metal would. In elec¬ 
tric car switches, and in fact in all switches, the same thing hap¬ 
pens when the switch is pulled out. As the two parts of the 
switch are separated to break the circuit, the current forms an 
arc which would burn up the switch if it were allowed to con¬ 
tinue. In small switches the arc is broken by pulling the two 
parts far apart so that the arc cannot continue, but in motor 
cars where the amount of current may be very great, the arc 
is often so large that it would do great damage in a short time 
even, and especially if it is used a great many times per day. 
It is therefore necessary to provide some means of destroying 
the arc or blowing it, as it is called. It has been found that 
the magnet will attract the electiic arc just as it will iron, so 
that if a very strong magnet is placed in a position near the 
switch, it will pull the arc away from the switch points as soon 
as it is formed. The magnet generally provided is an electro 
magnet or one which depends for its magnetism on the current. 
It is called a blow-out coil. 

Even with the blow-out coil, the arc is very hot and would 
burn anything near it if the switch were not protected by being 
placed inside a large fireproof box. The boxes are so large 
that if they were placed inside the car controller, it would take 
up the whole of the platform or cab, and be very clumsy, so 
the main switches are placed in some convenient position 
under the car and they are worked automatically, through a 


IO 


relay. The relay is nothing more nor less than a pilot 
valve. The motorman has a small switch in the controller 
case, which turns on a small amount of current which does 
not make much of an arc. This small current operates a 
contactor. The contactor is a large automatic switch, placed 
out of the way under the car, and it turns on the current 
into the motors. 

It has already been pointed out that the electric current 
heats any conductor in which it flows. The amount of heat 
depends on the amount of current, and if the current is great 
enough, it will burn the conductor up, and destroy it. In case 
of a short circuit the amount of current which would rush in 
might be enough to burn and ruin the car circuit and motors, 
so some means must be provided against this. For this pur¬ 
pose the fuse and circuit-breaker have been introduced. The 
fuse is a thin strip of some metal easily melted, generally lead 
or some alloy of lead, which forms part of the circuit. If the 
current gets too great, the lead will melt and open the circuit, 
thus shutting off the current entirely. It is placed in a fireproof 
box so that when it blows it can do no damage. The circuit- 
breaker is simply a switch with a spring holding it in place, 
and an elector-magnet trying to pull it out. The strength of 
the spring and the magnet are so arranged that the spring is 
stronger for all amounts of current that are safe, but as soon 
as the current becomes too great, the electro-magnet becomes 
stronger than the spring and pulls the switch opening the 
circuit. 


II 


ELECTRICAL UNIT 

The primary units of electricity are the volt, ampere, ohm, 
and watt. 


VOLT 

The volt is the unit of pressure or the pressure required to 
press one ampere through a resistance of one ohm. 

The voltage or pressure is also spoken of as the electro¬ 
motive force and generally written e.m.f. 

AMPERE 

The ampere is the unit of current or flow; it is the amount 
of current which will flow in a circuit of one ohm’s resistance, 
with a pressure of one volt. 


OHM 

The ohm is the unit of resistance; it is the amount of re¬ 
sistance through which one ampere of current will flow with 
one volt of pressure. 

WATT 

The watt is the electrical unit of power, and is equal to the 
rate at which work is done by a current. 746 watts equal one 
horse-power. 

The watts in any circuit are equal to the volts times the 
amperes. 

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF A STREET RAILWAY MOTOR 

The main parts of a street railway motor are a field mag¬ 
net, which is stationary, and a revolving armature. The field 


12 


magnet is composed of an iron or a steel casting, which has 
a certain quantity of insulated wire wound around it. The 
electricity passing through this wire or field coil magnetizes 
the iron, creating magnetic poles. The revolving armature 
is composed of thin disks of soft sheet iron, firmly bolted to¬ 
gether and fitted on a shaft; this is the armature core. This 

is dressed up in the 
machine shop, and 
wound with a cer¬ 
tain number of 
turns of insulated 
wire, which are con¬ 
nected together, so 
as to form one con¬ 
tinuous wire, pass¬ 
ing lengthwise 
around the core. 
Before the armature 
is wound, the core is 
thoroughly insulated 
with the best of in¬ 
sulating material; 
this is a very important factor in the construction of an armature, 
as defective insulation would cause the windings to ground on 
the core, in which case the armature would have to be stripped 
and re-wound again. The shaft upon which the armature is 
built furnishes both a support and means of transmitting the 
power of the armature to the wheels, by means of its pinion 
meshing with a gear on the truck axle. The winding of the 
armature is the most vital part, as it is in this, as in the field 










1 3 


magnets, that the current sets up the force that causes the mo¬ 
tion in the wheels of the car. When a wire carrying a current 
is brought in front of a pole of a magnet a force is experienced 
which tends to drive the wire sideways away from the magnet, 
and this is what takes place in an electric motor. When the 
windings of an armature, carrying current, come in front of a 
pole-piece of the field magnet they are forced away and the 
armature is kept revolving as long as the current flows. On 
the end of the armature shaft is a pinion, which meshes into a 
large gear wheel keyed on to the truck axle, and in this way an 
electric car is propelled. 

THE RHEOSTAT SYSTEM OF CONTROL 

The rheostat is a device for controlling the electric current 
and for diminishing its flow. The office of a rheostat as used 
to start up an electric motor is similar to that of a steam valve 
on a steam engine; that is, it is simply used to give a gradual 
admittance of the current to the motor, and is usually cut en¬ 
tirely out of circuit as soon as the motors reach their maximum 
speed. The necessity for the rheostat can be explained by 
carrying the analogy of the steam valve a little farther. The 
construction of the motor is such that when it is at rest the full 
admittance of the current would destroy it, just as the full 
admittance of the steam to the steam-engine cylinder would 
be almost sure to strain or break some of its parts. 

Different manufacturers vary in their method of mount¬ 
ing and connecting rheostats in circuit, but the principle 
in all cases is the same. A rheostat is also known as a 
resistance. 

There are many styles built by different electrical com- 


14 


panies; each having its advantages. Those in use at the pres¬ 
ent day are the Thomson-Houston, Westinghouse, General 
Electric and Lundie Resistances. 

T. H. RHEOSTAT SYSTEM 

The Thomson-Houston rheostat is composed of an iron 
frame, semicircular in shape and having a recess for inserting 

the resistance plates. 
The circuit is closed 
by a rheostat arm 
and sliding contact 
shoe. The plates 
are in series con¬ 
nection, terminating 
with the contact 
plate terminal, to 
which is attached 
the field end wire 
of motor circuit. 
Also in advance of this terminal a second contact plate is in 
connection with the field loop wire of motor circuit. 

The rheostat spindle and drum are secured in a vulcabestor 
bushing, which is clamped to the center of this semicircular 
device. A rheostat arm having at its end a sliding contact shoe 
for closing the circuit, with resistance plate of rheostat. The 
arm is constructed so as to raise or lower for adjustment; it 
being provided with a screw thread. 

The rheostat arm is propelled or moved around by what 
is known as the rheostat drum or pulley. This drum is com¬ 
posed of wood usually, on the under side of which is attached 








i5 


a U-shaped casting, which is extended so as to secure the rheo¬ 
stat arm for operation. 

The rheostat is controlled by what is known as the rheostat 
cables, which are attached to the rheostat drum and secured by 
a staple. This cable has one complete turn around the drum, 
and the ends are attached to sprocket chains. The other part 
of the cable is called the floating cable, the ends are attached 
to the opposite ends of the sprocket chains. The chain is op¬ 
erated by the sprocket wheel, the cogs of which mesh with the 
chain. The sprocket wheel 
is operated by a spindle 
which extends from the top to 
the bottom of the controller 
stand, the spindle being 
operated by a crank handle. 

The rheostat just de¬ 
scribed was the first type 
of resistance used in con- Fig. 6. — Grid Diverter for Railway 
nection with street rail- Equipments, 

ways motors in the earlier days of electric railways. 

The rheostats of the present day are of a different type and 
build. They are composed of long strips of annealed band 
iron which are built up in layers, each layer being insulated from 
the others by asbestos or mica. When formed this is known 
as a panel of resistance. The number of panels usually placed 
in a rheostat frame is six, each one having a certain amount of 
resistance. They are placed in series connection with ter¬ 
minal binding-posts attached for connecting rheostatic wires 
from the controller which cut in certain sections, each repre¬ 
sented by its individual wire. 








i6 


Another type of modem rehostats is known as the Grid 
type; the panels are composed of cast-iron grids which are 
cast in a zigzag shape, so as to form a continuous circuit, hav¬ 
ing as nearly as possible a specified resistance. The grids or 
panels are mounted on two iron bars, having a mica insulation. 
Binding-posts are attached at certain intervals for rheostatic 
lead wire connections which are attached to the controller. 

CONTROLLERS 

The controller is probably the most important and cer¬ 
tainly the most complicated part of an electric car equipment. 

Its position is always at the outer end of the car platform 
and through its mechanism the current is led to the motors 
and resistance, thereby producing the several combinations to 
determine the speed of the car. In stating that the position 
of the controller is always at the platform end, I mean at the 
present time, as I remember some years ago when the Vander- 
poele system was in use that the motor and starting-box were 
inside of the car at about the center. The car was propelled 
by means of a sprocket chain running from a sprocket wheel 
on the armature shaft to another sprocket wheel on the car axle. 
There have been two distinct types or methods of control 
which have been put into use in connection with the propulsion 
of cars. The first that was used to any extent was that of the 
Sprague system. In this system the field coils were divided 
into several sections and these sections, together with the arma¬ 
tures, formed the several steps or combinations which were 
to vary the speed. The second form is that in which the field 
and armature circuits remain unchanged, while a heavy resist¬ 
ance is placed in circuit with them. The resistance method of 



!7 


control is the simplest of any which has ever been used, and by 
it an almost perfect control over the speed of the car is gotten. 
By this method the car can be started and its speed increased 
up to the limit very gradually, without any perceptible jar. 

There are many types of controllers in use at the present 
date, but the universal types are of the General Electric and 
Westinghouse build. 

G. E. CONTROLLER . 

The G. E. controller consists of an iron frame with a cover. 
Within are placed two cylinders, and also contact wipers or 
fingers for operation. The large or main cylinder closes the con¬ 
nection with the motor and rheostatic combinations. The small 
or reverse cylinder closes the connections with the motor circuit. 

Of the many types of controllers which are manufactured 
by the General Electric Company, the types known as K, K-i, 
K-2, K-io, and K-ii are the ones generally used by street 
railways, and, at the present date, the two latter types, K-io 
and K-ii, are generally adopted. The types K and K-i are 
identical except in the build of the connection board, the differ¬ 
ence being that in the type K each lead wire of cable is secured 
to binding-post of connection board by means of a crow-foot 
terminal, and secured to the binding-post by a nut; while in 
type K-i the connection board is equipped with socket binding- 
posts, and each lead of cable is secured in its socket by means 
of a set-screw. 

WESTINGHOUSE CONTROLLER 

The Westinghouse Company has made many different 
forms of controllers while adhering to the same general form of 
motor. The earlier forms of Westinghouse controllers are 


i8 


named in alphabetical order, from A to G inclusive. Con¬ 
trollers B, C, and E were put out with their earlier types of 
motors, which were arranged for parallel running. The type 
G was first adapted for series parallel running, but was after¬ 
wards superseded by type 14. This later was followed by the 
type 28-A controller. The most commonly used controllers 
at present, with series parallel motors, are No. 14 and No. 28-A. 
A description of type No. 14 follows: 

Upon opening the controller case you will observe eleven 
contact wipers or fingers at the left of the controller, also the 
twelve main cable terminals at the bottom, and the two cut-out 
plugs near the center and at the right-hand side. The revers¬ 
ing switch differs from the General Electric type. It is the 
form of a flat disk of slate or porcelain, and is located immedi¬ 
ately under the heavy brass top of the controller case. With 
this controller there are six speed points. The first two have 
resistance in series with both motors in a series. At the third 
point both motors are in series with all of resistance cut out; 
at the fourth and fifth positions the motors are in parallel, each 
having resistance in its circuit, and at the sixth position the 
motors are in parallel with all resistance cut out. The con¬ 
troller known as the 28-A is quite similar to the type 14, differ¬ 
ing from it only in its mechanical construction. The method 
of reversing is the same excepting that the handle is placed at 
the top of the controller instead of at the side as in the type 
No. 14. The cylinder is not arranged to swing open as in type 
14, but may be readily taken out to make repairs. The main 
cable terminals are distributed at the sides and bottom of the 
controller. 

The cut-outs also are slightly different in form. With the 




type 14 controller, when motor No. 1 is cut out, motor No. 2 
will not start until the controller handle is thrown on to the 
fourth position, and in order to operate your car notches Nos. 4, 
5, and 6 are used. When motor No. 2 is cut out, your car 
will take power on the 1st, 2d, and 3d positions. With type 
28-A controller, no matter which motor is cut out of circuit, 
the remaining motor is operated on notches 1, 2, 3, and 4, the 
controller being locked from passing beyond this. 

CURTIS CONTROLLER 

The Curtis controller is a series parallel controller, and in 
general principles is the same as all others of the same class. 
On the Form A controllers the running notches are 3 and 7, 
and on the Form B they are 3 and 5. The first three points 
are series points, and the others are parallel points. This 
controller has no blow-out magnet coil, as the General Electric 
controllers have, but has arc deflectors between each two wipers 
or contact fingers. Neither has it motor cut-outs for cutting 
out a defective motor, and in case of a defective motor the 
motor leads have to be disconnected at the motor, the same as 
the W. P.-50 T. H. 

This controller has no connection board at the bottom of 
the controller, the connections being made on either side, the 
armature and field wires to the right side and the resistance 
wires, trolley and ground wires connect on the left side to the 
wiper board. The setting of the reverse handle indicates the 
direction in which the car will move, and great care should be 
taken that the reverse handle is not pulled back or moved in 
any way while the power is on, as it would greatly injure the 
controller, and it would be plain to see how the damage was 


20 


done on opening the controller case; besides, if you wanted 
to make a quick stop, this way is not reliable, as the fuse would 
surely blow if you pulled over the reverse lever with the power 
on. When it becomes necessary to reverse the car, to stop in 
case of an emergency, first throw off the power, then pull the 
reverse lever and apply the power slowly, and then your fuse 
is not as liable to blow. An arrangement of cam roller and 
wheel plainly marks to the touch the successive stops, so that 
the motorman does not have to watch the dial plate, but can 
be on the lookout to see that the track is clear ahead. As be¬ 
fore stated, to cut out one motor, the connections have to be 
disconnected at the motor, and you will find that the car will 
not start until the handle is moved to the fourth position. This 
can be remedied, however, by closing the field and armature 
circuits. After disconnecting the defective motor, connect 
together the two brush wires and then connect together the 
two field wires. The wires that you are to connect together 
are the wires coming out of the body of the car , and not the wires 
coming out of the motor . This will give you power on the first 
three notches, and the controller must not be operated beyond 
that position. You should exercise great care in the handling 
of these controllers, and be sure to work them on the notches 
and not half-way between. 

WALKER CONTROLLER 

In this controller the arc is broken by a cylinder placed in 
the controller for that purpose. The circuit is broken at 
twenty-eight points, and is supposed to render the most severe 
arc entirely harmless. Another feature consists in entirely 
separating the operation of breaking the circuit from the con- 


21 



trolling cylinder. The controller consists of two cylinders. The 
controlling cylinder proper is used to make the different com¬ 


binations required to obtain 
the proper regulation of speeds 
of the car for acceleration. The 
second cylinder is used for the 
breaking of the circuit when¬ 
ever this is required. The arc¬ 
breaking cylinder which is to 
the left of the controlling cylin¬ 
der has its circuit so arranged 
that the main current passes 
first through it before going to 
the controlling cylinder. The 
mechanism of the arc-breaking 
cylinder is so arranged that 
with a slight movement of the 
controllerhandle backward, the 
circuit is completely opened, 
leaving the controlling cylinder 
entirely dead. The controller 
cannot be closed again until 
the controlling handle has been 
brought back to the off posi¬ 
tion. After the circuit has been 
opened by the slight backward 
movement of the controlling 
handle, the controlling cylinder 

Can be moved backward and Fig - 7 - — Walker Controller, showing 

arc-breaking cylinder at left; also 

forward into any position with- showing No. i motor cut-out. 








22 


out producing any effect, and it is absolutely necessary to go 
back to the off position before the circuit can be closed. This 
feature makes it impossible to drop back from one notch to 
another in such a way as to put in or take out resistance in the 
circuit. A slight movement of the handle backwards cuts off 
the current from the car, thus leaving the motorman free to 
attend to his brake. There is also an interlocking device where¬ 
by the pawl that indicates the various running positions acts 
at the same time as a lock between the controlling cylinder 
and reverse. The controlling cylinder is locked when the re¬ 
verse is in any other position than forward or backward, and 
the reverse is locked except when the controlling cylinder is 
at the off position. The motor cut-out switches are in each 
controller, and a peculiar feature is, that in cutting out a motor 
on No. i end, it has to be cut out on the No. 2 end also. In 
cutting out a defective motor, cut it out in both controllers. 

CIRCUITS OF G. E. CONTROLLERS 

The following is the course of the current in a G. E. type 
K or K-i controller, with two motors, in a series parallel con¬ 
nection with shunt method of operation: 

First Position 

The current passes from the trolley wire to the trolley wheel, 
through trolley pole to trolley stand, then through wire leading 
to No. 1 overhead switch (M. M. switch). When switch is 
closed the current passes through the wire leading to No. 2 
overhead switch (M. M. switch); and when switch is closed the 
current passes through wire leading to and connecting with 


23 


the fuse box (cut-out box), leaving same and passing through 
wire which connects with lightning arrester. When a T. H. 
lightning arrester is in circuit the current passes in at a point 
marked A, passing through blow-out magnet coil, leaving at a 
point marked B; then passing through a wire connecting with 
the wire in cable marked T (meaning trolley). The current 
passes through this wire, which connects with terminals marked 
T on connection board of each controller, and also in connec¬ 
tion with each blow-out magnet coil of controller. The cur¬ 
rent then passes through blow-out magnet coil, when in opera¬ 
tion, and then passes through a wire connecting with the top 
contact wiper or finger of each controller. When controller 
cylinder is thrown to the first position the current passes through 
wire marked R-i, which is the first wire connecting with the 
rheostat or resistance, leaving the rheostatic circuit through 
wire marked R-3, connecting with terminal marked R-3 on 
connection board of each controller — that connecting with 
wire marked No. 19, which is the main circuit wire of No. 1 
motor’s entire circuit; that connecting with the bottom con¬ 
tact wiper or finger of reverse switch or reverse cylinder. When 
reversing switch or cylinder is thrown ahead for the forward 
motion of the car the current passes to and leaves at the second 
contact wiper upon the reverse switch, passing through wire 
marked A-i, which is the wire connecting with the brush-holder 
of No. 1 motor’s armature. The current then passes through 
the armature, leaving at opposite brush-holder, passing through 
wire marked AA-i, which connects with the third contact 
wiper upon reverse switch — the current leaving at the fourth 
contact wiper upon reverse switch then passing through wire 
marked F-i, which is the wire connecting with the field cir- 


24 


cuit of No. i motor, which is composed of one, two, or four 
fields, leaving the same and passing through wire marked E-i, 
which is the ground end wire of No. i motor’s entire circuit; 
that leading to and connecting with the center bar of No. i 
motor cut-out switch. The current then passes through wiie 
and connects with the contact wipers marked E-i, and then 
in connection with (through) cylinder to wire marked No. 15, 
which is the main circuit wire of No. 2 motor’s entire connec¬ 
tion; then connecting with the fifth contact wiper upon re¬ 
verse switch, the current leaving at the sixth contact wiper 
upon the reverse switch, passing through wire marked A-2, 
which is the wire connecting with the brush-holder of No. 2 
motor’s armature circuit; the current then passes through 
armature circuit; leaving at opposite brush-holder, passing 
through wire marked AA-2, which connects with the seventh 
contact wiper upon reverse switch, the current leaving at the 
eighth contact wiper upon the reverse switch, then passing 
through wire marked F-2, which is the wire connecting with 
the field circuit of No. 2 motor, which is composed of one, two 
or four field coils, leaving same, and passing through wire 
marked E-2, which is the ground end wire of No. 2 motor’s 
entire connection, that leading to and connecting with the main 
ground wire marked G at motor. The above is the complete 
circuit of two motors, in series, in connection with G. E. con¬ 
troller, type K. or K-i, on first position. 

Second Position 

When using the second position the two motors are still 
held in series, the circuit being the same as on the first position, 
but with this exception, that instead of the current passing 


2 5 


through wire R-i, it passes through wire marked R-2, which 
leads to and connects with the rheostatic circuit. On this 
position, a part of the resistance is cut out, leaving about one- 
half of the number of panels of resistance in connection with 
motor circuit which allows an increased speed of motors by 
an increase of current to motor terminals. 


Third Position 

When using the third position the two motors are still held 
in series, the circuit being the same as on the first and second 
positions, but with this exception, that there is no rheostatic 
connection whatever with motor circuit, the current being 
direct to motor terminals, which allows a still greater speed of 
motors than in the second position through an increase of cur¬ 
rent to motor terminals. 

Fourth Position 

When using the fourth position the two motors are still 
held in series, as on the preceding positions, and without ex¬ 
terior resistance, but with this exception, that the field circuits 
are shunted, the current shunted from No. i motor’s field cir¬ 
cuit is carried to a ground through No. 2 motor’s armature 
circuit, the current shunted from No. 2 motor’s field circuit is 
carried to ground through the main ground wire terminal in 
the controller; the shunting of the field circuit of motors Nos. 1 
and 2 decreases the field strength which allows an increased 
current at armature terminals, which gives an added increase 
of speed to the armatures. 


26 


Fifth Position 

When using the fifth position the two motors are placed in 
parallel or multiple, with about one-half of rheostatic panels 
of resistance in connection with same, the current passing to 
rheostat through wire marked R-2. On this position the wire 
marked E-i, which is ground end wire of No. i motor’s entire 
connection, is placed in connection by the controlling cylinder 
to main ground wire in controller. The circuit of No. 2 motor 
is in connection with that of No. 1 motor’s main circuit wire 
marked No. 19, that connecting with wire marked No. 15, 
which is No. 2 motor’s main circuit wire; the ground end wire 
of No. 2 motor’s circuit, which is wire marked E-2, is still held 
in connection with main ground wire at motor. 

Sixth Position 

When using the sixth position the two motors are still held 
in parallel or multiple as on the fifth position, but with this 
exception, there being no exterior resistance, the current being 
direct to motor terminals, the current passing to No. 1 motor’s 
circuit through wire marked No. 19 in controller, the current 
passing to No. 2 motor’s circuit through wire marked No. 15 
simultaneously. Wires marked No. 15 and No. 19 are held 
in circuit by the connection of the contact wiper marked R-3. 

Seventh Position 

When using the seventh position the two motors are still 
held in parallel or multiple as on the sixth position, but with 
this exception, the field circuit being shunted, the current 
shunted from No. 1 motor’s field circuit is carried to the ground 


27 


through the main ground wire terminal in controller, the cur¬ 
rent shunted from No. 2 motor’s field circuit is carried to the 
ground through the main ground wire terminal in the con¬ 
troller. 

Explanatory Note 

When moving the controlling cylinder from a series to a 
parallel connection, the No. 2 motor’s circuit is entirely cut 
out when midway between the fourth and fifth positions, but 
when the two motors are placed in multiple the connection is 
not made in full until on the fifth position. The shunt resist¬ 
ance used in connection with motors is tapped from the field 
leads on the positive side of the field circuit. The ground 
ends of shunt resistance are placed in connection with con¬ 
trollers by wire marked L-i and L-2. The safe running posi¬ 
tions or continuous points on a type K or K-i controller are 
3, 4, 6, and 7, and the unsafe positions are 1, 2, and 5, which 
are rheostatic or resistance points. The safe running positions 
are indicated by the long raised bars on dial plate on cap of 
controller, and the rheostatic or resistance points are indicated 
by the short, raised bars on the dial plate. 

CIRCUITS OF G. E. CONTROLLER, TYPE K-2 

The following is the direction of the current in connection 
with a G. E. controller, type K-2. 

With two motors in a series parallel connection with shunt 
method of operation. 

First Position 

The current passes from the trolley wire to the trolley 
wheel, through trolley pole to the trolley stand, then through 


28 


wire leading to No. i overhead switch (M. M. switch). When 
switch is closed the current passes through the wire leading to 



Fig. 8. — General Electrical Series — Parallel Controller, 
Form K-2, Fourth Position. 


No. 2 overhead switch (M. M. switch); and when switch is 
closed the current passes through wire connecting with the fuse 


























2 9 


box (cut-out box), leaving same and passing through wire con¬ 
necting with lightning arrester. 

When a T. H. lightning arrester is in circuit the current 
passes in at a point marked A, passing through blow-out mag¬ 
net coil, leaving at a point marked B, then passing through a 
wire which connects with wire in cable marked T (meaning 
trolley). The current passes through this wire, which con¬ 
nects with terminals marked T on connection board of each 
controller, and also in connection with each blow-out magnet 
coil of controller. The current passes through blow-out mag¬ 
net coil when in operation and then passes through wire con¬ 
necting wtih the top contact wiper or finger of each controller. 
When controller cylinder is thrown to the first position the cur¬ 
rent passes through a wire marked R-i, which is the first wire 
connecting with the rheostat or resistance, leaving the rheostatic 
circuit through wire marked R-4, which connects with ter¬ 
minal marked R-4, on connection board of each controller, that 
connecting with wire marked No. 19 which is the main circuit 
wire of No. 1 motor’s entire circuit, that connecting with the 
bottom contact wiper or finger of reverse switch or reverse 
cylinder. When reversing switch or cylinder is thrown ahead, 
for the forward motion, the current passes to and leaves at the 
second contact wiper upon reverse switch, passing through wire 
marked A-i, which is the wire connecting with the brush-holder 
of No. 1 motor’s armature circuit. The current then passes 
through armature circuit, leaving at opposite brush-holder, 
passing through wire marked AA-i, which connects with the 
third contact wiper upon reverse switch. The current leaving 
at the fourth contact wiper upon reverse switch, then passing 
through wire marked F-i, which is wire connecting with the 



30 





i 

Q 

* 

i 

s 


»0 

* 

Ui 

*«4 

3 

K 

I 

V) 

N 

i 

I 

i 

i 


On 


Fig. 















































































































































































3 1 


field circuit of No. i motor, which is composed of either one, 
two, or four field coils, leaving same and passing through wire 
marked E-i, which is the ground end wire of No. i motor’s 
entire circuit, that leading to and connecting with the center 
bar of No. i motor’s cut-out switch. The current then passes 
through a wire and connects with the contact wipers marked 
E-i, and that in connection with (through cylinder) to wire 
marked No. 15, which is the main circuit wire of No. 2 motor’s 
entire circuit, that connecting with the fifth contact wiper upon 
reverse switch; the current leaving at the sixth contact wiper 
upon the reverse switch, passing through a wire marked A-2, 
which is the wire connecting with the brush-holder of No. 2 
motor’s armature circuit; the current then passes through 
armature circuit, leaving at opposite brush-holder, then pass¬ 
ing through wire marked A A-2, which connects with the sev¬ 
enth contact wiper upon reverse switch, the current leaving at 
the eighth contact wiper upon the reverse switch, then passing 
through wire marked F-2, which is wire connecting with the 
field circuit of No. 2 motor which is composed of either one, 
two, or four field coils, leaving same and passing through 
wire at E 2, which is the ground-end wire of No. 2 motor’s 
entire circuit, that leading to and connecting with the main 
gound wire marked G at motor. 

The above is the complete circuit of two motors in series, in 
connection with a G. E. controller, type K-2,on the first position. 

Second Position 

When using the second position the two motors are still 
held in series, the circuit being the same as on the first position, 
but with this exception, that instead of current passing through 


3 2 


wire marked R-i it passes through wire marked R-2, which 
leads to and connects with the rheostatic circuit. On this posi¬ 
tion a portion of the resistance is cut out, leaving about one- 
third of the resistance in connection with motor circuits, which 
allows an increased speed of motors, by an increase of current 
to motor terminals. 

Third Position 

When using the third position, the two motors are still held 
in series, the circuit being the same as on the first and second 
positions, but with this exception, that instead of the current 
passing through the wire marked R-i and R-2 it passes through 
wire marked R-3, which leads to and connects with the rheo¬ 
static circuit. On this position a still larger portion of the 
resistance is cut out leaving about one-twelfth of resistance in 
connection with motor circuits, which also allows an increased 
speed of motors over that of the second position by an increase 
of current to motor terminals. 

Fourth Position 

When using the fourth position the two motors are still 
held in series, the circuit being the same as on the first, second, 
and third positions, but with this exception, that there is no 
rheostatic connection whatever with motor connection, the cur¬ 
rent going direct to the motor terminals, which allows a still 
greater increase of speed of motors over that of the third posi¬ 
tion, by an increase of current to motor terminals. 

Fifth Position 

When using the fifth position the two motors are still held 
in series, as on the preceding positions and without exterior 


33 


resistance, but with this exception: the field circuits are shunted. 
The current shunted from No. i motor’s field circuit is carried 
to the ground through No. 2 motor’s armature circuit. The 
current shunted from No. 2 motor’s field circuit is carried to 
the ground through the main ground wire terminal in the con¬ 
troller. The shunting of field circuits of motors Nos. 1 and 2 
decreases the field strength which allows an increase of current 
at armature terminals which gives an added increase of speed 
to armatures. 


Sixth Position 

When using the sixth position the two motors are placed 
in parallel or multiple with one-third of resistance in connec¬ 
tion with same, the current passing to rheostat or resistance 
through wire marked R-2. On this position the wire marked 
E-i, which is the ground-end wire of No. 1 motor’s entire cir¬ 
cuit, is placed in connection by the controlling cylinder to main 
ground wire in controller. The circuit of No. 2 motor is in 
connection with that of No. 1 motor’s main circuit wire marked 
No. 19, that connecting with wire marked No. 15, which is No. 
2 motor’s main circuit wire. The ground-end wire of No. 2 
motor circuit, which is marked E-2, is still held in connection 
with main ground wire at motor. 

Seventh Position 

When using the seventh position, the two motors are still 
held in parallel or multiple, as on the sixth position, but with 
this exception: only one-twelfth of resistance is placed in cir¬ 
cuit with the same, the current passing to rheostat or resist¬ 
ance through wire marked R-3, which allows an increase of 



34 


current at motor terminals, and gives an added increase of 
speed to armature. 

Eighth Position 

When using the eighth position, the two motors are held in 
parallel or multiple, as on the seventh position, except without 
exterior resistance, the current being direct to motor terminals, 
passing to No. i motor’s circuit through wire marked No. 19 
in controller, the current passing to No. 2 motor’s circuit 
through wire marked No. 15 simultaneously. Wires marked 
No. 19 and 15 are held in circuit by the connection of the con¬ 
tact wiper marked R-4. 


Ninth Position 

When using the ninth position, the two motors are still held 
in parallel or multiple as on the eighth position, but with this 
exception; the field circuits being shunted the current shunted 
from No. 1 motor’s field circuit is carried to the ground through 
the main ground wire terminal in controller. The current 
shunted from No. 2 motor’s field circuit is carried to the ground 
through the main ground wire in controller. 

Explanatory Note 

When changing the controller cylinder from a series to a 
parallel connection with a G. E. type K-2 controller, the No. 
2 motor’s circuit is entirely cut out when midway between the 
fifth and sixth positions, but when the two motors are placed 
in parallel the connection is not made in full until on the sixth 
position. The shunt resistances used in connection with 
motors are tapped from the field leads on the positive side of 


35 


the field circuit, the same as with a type K or K-i controller. 
The ground ends of shunt resistance are placed in connection 
with controller by wires marked L-i and L-2, the same as on 
a type K or K-i controller. The safe running positions on a 
type K-2 controller are 4, 5, 8, and 9; the unsafe running posi¬ 
tions are 1, 2, 3, 6, and 7, which are rheostatic or resistance 
points. The safe running positions are designated by the long 
raised bars on dial plate on cap of controller, and the rheostatic 
or resistance points are designated by the short raised bars on 
the dial plate. 

DIRECTION OF CURRENT WITH G. E. TYPE K-10 

OR 11 CONTROLLER 

The course of the current from the trolley wire to the trolley 
contact wiper in controller is the same as that of the types K, 
K-i, or K-2. 

First Position 

When controlling cylinder is thrown to the first position 
the current passes through a wire marked R-i, which is the 
first wire connecting with the rheostat or resistance, leaving 
the rheostatic circuit through a wire marked R-5, which con¬ 
nects with the terminal marked R-5 on connection board of 
each controller, that connecting with the wire marked No. 19, 
which is the main circuit wire of No. 1 motor’s entire circuit; 
that connecting with the bottom contact wiper or finger of re¬ 
verse switch or reverse cylinder. When reversing switch or 
cylinder is thrown ahead for the forward motion the current 
passes to and leaves at the second contact wiper upon reverse 
switch passing through wire marked A-i, which is the wire 


3 6 



connecting with the brush-holder of No. i motor’s armature 
circuit; the current then passes through armature circuit, 
leaving at opposite brush-holder, passing through wire marked 


Fig. io. — The K-n Series Parallel Controller. 


AA-i, which connects with the third contact wiper upon re¬ 
verse switch; the current leaving at the fourth contact wiper 
upon reverse switch then passes through wire marked F-i, 
which is the wire connecting with the field circuit of No. i 









37 


motor, which is composed of i, 2, or 4 field coils, leaving same 
and passing through wire marked E-i, which is the ground-end 
wire of No. 1 motor’s entire circuit, that leading to and con¬ 
necting with the right-hand bar of No. 1 motor’s cut-out switch; 
the current then passes through a wire and connects with the 
contact wipers marked E-i, and those in connection with 
(through cylinder) wire marked No. 15, which is the main cir¬ 
cuit wire of No. 2 motor’s entire circuit, that connecting with 
the fifth contact wiper upon reverse switch, the current leaving 
at the sixth contact wiper upon the reverse switch passing 
through a wire marked A-2, which is the wire connecting with 
the brush-holder of No. 2 motor’s armature circuit. The cur¬ 
rent then passes through motor No. 2 armature circuit, leaving 
at opposite brush-holder, passing through wire marked AA-2, 
which connects with the seventh contact wiper upon reverse 
switch, the current leaving at the eighth contact wiper upon 
reverse switch, then passing through wire marked F-2, which 
is wire connecting with the field circuit of No. 2 motor, which 
is composed of 1, 2, or 4 field coils, leaving same and passing 
through a wire marked E-2, which is the ground-end wire of 
No. 2 motor’s entire circuit, that leading to and connecting 
with the main ground wire marked G at motors. 

The above is the complete circuit of two motors in series 
in connection with a G. E. controller, types K-10 or K-n, on 
the first position. 


Second Position 

When using the second position the two motors are still 
held in series, the circuit being the same as on the first position, 
but with this exception: instead of the current passing through 


Car Wiring For if-// Con / ro//*rs Wi/h 2 Motors 
4/so Correct for2/f-/0 Contro//ers with 2 Motors when 2 Circuit dreahers are used. 


38 



Fig. 11. 














































































































































































39 


the wire marked R-i it passes through the wire marked R-2, 
which leads to and connects with the rheostatic circuit. 

On this position a portion of the resistance is cut out, leav¬ 
ing about three-fourths in connection with motor circuits, 
which allows an increase of speed of motors by an increase of 
current to the motor terminals. 

Third Position 

When using the third position the two motors are still held 
in series, the circuit being the same as on the first and second 
positions, but with this exception: instead of the current pass¬ 
ing through the wires marked R-i and R-2 it passes through a 
wire marked R-3, which leads to and connects with the rheo¬ 
static circuit. On this position a still larger portion of the 
resistance is cut out, leaving about one-half of the resistance in 
connection with motor circuits, which also allows an increase 
of speed of motors over that of the second position, by an 
increase of current to the motor terminals. 

Fourth Position 

When using the fourth position the two motors are still held 
in series, the circuit being the same as on the first, second, and 
third positions, but with this exception: instead of the current 
passing through wires marked R-i, R-2, or R-3, it passes 
through a wire marked R-4, which leads to and connects with 
the rheostatic circuit. On this position a still larger portion of 
the resistance is cut out, leaving about one-fourth in connection 
with the motor circuits, which also allows an increase of speed 
of motors over that of the third position, by an increase of cur¬ 
rent at the motor terminals. 


40 


Fifth Position 

When using the fifth position the two motors are still held 
in series, the circuit being the same as on the first, second, third 
and fourth positions, but with this exception: there is no rheo¬ 
static connection whatever with the motor circuit; the current 
flowing direct to motor terminals, which allows a still greater 
increase of speed of motors over that of the fourth position, by 
an increase of current to motor terminals. 

Sixth Position 

When using the sixth position the two motors are placed in 
parallel or multiple with about three-fourths of the resistance 
in connection with the same, the current passing to rheostat 
or resistance through the wire marked R-2. On this position 
the wire marked E-i, which is the ground-end wire of No. i 
motor’s entire connections, is placed in connection by the con¬ 
trolling cylinder to main ground wire in controller. The cir¬ 
cuit of No. 2 motor is in connection with that of No. i motor’s 
main circuit wire marked No. 19, that connecting with the wire 
marked No. 15, which is No. 2 motor’s main circuit wire. The 
ground-end wire of No. 2 motor’s circuit is always in connec¬ 
tion with the main ground wire at the motor. 

Seventh Position 

When using the seventh position the two motors are still 
held in parallel or multiple, as on the sixth position, but with 
this exception: about one-half of the resistance is placed in 
circuit, the current passing through rheostat, or resistance, 
through a wire marked R-3, which allows an increase of 


4i 


current at motor terminals and gives an increased speed to 
armatures. 

Eighth Position 

When using the eighth position the two motors are still 
held in parallel or multiple, as on the sixth and seventh posi¬ 
tions, but with this exception: about one-fourth of the resist¬ 
ance is placed in circuit, the current passing to rheostat or 
resistance through a wire marked R-4, which allows an increase 
of current at the motor terminals and gives an added increase 
of speed to armatures. 


Ninth Position 

When using the ninth position the two motors are still held in 
parallel or multiple, as on the sixth, seventh, and eighth posi¬ 
tions, but with this exception: all the exterior resistance being 
cut out, the current being direct to motor terminals, passing 
to No. 1 motor circuit through wire marked No. 19 and to No. 2 
motor’s circuit through wire marked No. 15 simultaneously. 

Wires marked No. 19 and No. 15 are held in circuit by the 
connection of the contact wiper marked R-5. 

When changing controller cylinder from a series to a parallel 
connection, the No. 2 motor’s circuit is entirely cut out when 
midway between the fifth and sixth positions, the same as that 
of a circuit with a G. E. type K-2 controller. The two motors 
are placed in multiple when the controller is thrown to the 
sixth position, as on the type K-2 controller. 

The safe running positions of a G. E. type K-10 or K-n 
controller are the fifth and ninth positions. The unsafe run¬ 
ning positions are one, two, three, four, six, seven, and eight, 


42 


which are rheostatic, or resistance points or positions. The 
safe running positions are designated by the long raised bars 
on the dial plate on cap of controller, and the rheostatic or 
resistance points are designated by the short raised bars on 
the dial plate. 

REVERSING SWITCH 

The reversing switch or cylinder of a G. E. controller is 
constructed of wood or some other insulating material and is 
cylindrical in shape. The contact plates, of which they are 
sixteen in number, are mounted upon this cylinder. They are 
for the purpose of causing a change in the direction of the arma¬ 
ture or armatures. Eight of them are for the forward motion, 
and eight for the backward motion. When using the forward 
motion, eight of the contact plates of the reverse switch are 
connected in pairs, beginning at the bottom of the reverse 
switch. The connections are made usually through a heavy 
wire, about No. 4 size, embedded in the wood or insulating 
material of the switch. In this connection of both motors 
there are four pairs of contact plates required, the first two of 
which from bottom of switch upward represent No. 1 motor’s 
connections, while the third and fourth pair, counting from 
the bottom, represent No. 2 motor’s connection. 

The bottom contact wiper of the first pair is the No. 19 wire 
connection, and the second contact wiper of this pair is the A-i 
lead connection. The third contact wiper upon the reverse 
switch, which is the first contact wiper of the second pair, is 
the AA-i lead connection. The fourth contact wiper up, 
which is the second contact wiper of the second pair, is the F-i 
lead connection. The fifth contact wiper upon reverse switch, 


43 


which is the first wiper of the third pair, is the No. 15 wire con¬ 
nection. The sixth contact wiper upon the reverse switch, 
which is the second contact wiper of the third pair, is the A-2 
lead connection. 

The seventh contact wiper upon the reverse switch, which 
is the first contact wiper of the fourth pair, is the AA-2 lead 
connection. 

The eighth contact wiper upon the reverse switch, which is 
the second contact wiper of the fourth pair, is the F-2 lead 
connection. 

When reversing for a backward motion, the other eight con¬ 
tact plates are placed in connection with contact wipers and are 
connected in pairs the same as for the forward motion, but with 
this exception: they are in alternate connection, that is, the 
first and third are in connection with each other, and also the 
second and fourth, which comprises No. 1 motor’s connection, 
also the fifth and seventh, are in connection with each other, and 
the sixth and eighth contact plates are in connection, which 
comprises No. 2 motor’s connection. 

The first and third contact plates represent, respectively, 
the connection of No. 19 wire and the AA-i armature lead, and 
the second and fourth contact plates represent the connection 
of the A-1 armature lead and the F-i field lead. 

The fifth and seventh contact plates represent, respectively, 
the connection of No. 15 wire and AA-2 armature lead, and the 
sixth and eighth contact plates represent the connection of the 
A—2 armature lead and F-2 field lead. 


44 


G. E. K-6 CONTROLLER 

The G. E. K-6 controller is adapted for a four-motor 
equipment. The controller has eleven positions, of which 
six are in series and five in parallel. 



Fig. 12. — The K -6 Series Parallel Controller. 

First Position 

W hen on the first position of controller, the four motors 
are in a series multiple motor connection with exterior resist¬ 
ance; the current entering the rheostat, through wire R-i, 

















45 


leaving rheostatic field at wire R-6, which connects with wire 
No. 19 of each controller which is in connection with reverse 
switch at terminals of motors 1 and 3. The circuit from this 
point for motors is the same as that of the type K-10 or 11 
controller. 

Second Position 

When on the second position of controller, the circuit is 
the same as that of the first position; the current entering the 
rheostatic field through wire R-2 and leaving at wire R-6, 
which connects wire with No. 19. 

Third Position 

When on the third position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the second position, with this exception: the 
current entering the rheostatic field through wire R-3, leaving 
at wire R-6, which connects with wire No. 19. 

Fourth Position 

When on the fourth position the circuit is the same as that 
of the third position, with this exception: the current entering 
rheostatic field, through wire marked R-4, leaving at wire 
marked R-6 which connects with wire No. 19. 

Fifth Position 

When on the fifth position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the fourth position, with this exception: the 
current entering the rheostatic field through wire R-5, leaving 
at wire R-6, which connects with wire No. 19. 


46 


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47 


Sixth Position 

When on the sixth position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the fifth position, with this exception: the four 
motors are in a series multiple connection, without exterior 
resistance, the current being direct to motor terminals. This 
is called the series safe running position. 

Seventh Position 

When on the seventh position of controller, the motors are 
in a multiple connection with exterior resistance, the current 
entering the rheostatic field through wire R-2 and leaving at 
wire R-6, which connects with wires Nos. 19 and 15. 

Eighth Position 

When on the eighth position of controller, the circuit is 
the same as that of the seventh position, with this exception: 
the current enters the rheostatic field through wire R-3, leaving 
at wire R-6, which connects with wires Nos. 19 and 15. 

Ninth Position 

When on the ninth position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the eighth position, with this exception: the 
current enters the rheostatic field through wire R-4, leaving at 
wire R-6, which connects with wires Nos. 19 and 15. 

Tenth Position 

When on the tenth position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the ninth position, with this exception: the cur- 


4 8 


rent enters the rheostatic field through wire R-5, leaving at wire 
R-6, which connects with wires Nos. 19 and 15. 

Eleventh Position 

When on the eleventh position of controller, the circuit is 
the same as that of the tenth position, with this exception: the 
motors are in a multiple connection without exterior resistance; 
the current being direct to motor terminals. This is called the 
multiple or parallel safe running position. 

Explanatory Note. Reverse Switch Connections 

The connection of motors Nos. 1 and 2 are at left-hand side 
of reverse cylinder. The connections of motors Nos. 3 and 4 
are at light-hand of reverse cylinder. 

Wire No. 19 is in connection with motors Nos. 1 and 3; wire 
No. 15 is in connection with motors 2 and 4. 

The four lower contact wipers of reverse cylinder, located on 
the left-hand side, are for No. 1 motor connection. The four- 
top contact wipers on the left-hand side of reverse cylinder are 
for No. 2 motor’s connection. The four lower contact wipers 
on the right-hand side of reverse cylinder are for No. 3 motor’s 
connection. The four top contact wipers on the right-hand 
side of reverse cylinder are for No. 4 motor’s connection. 

G. E. K-14 CONTROLLER 

The G. E. K-14 controller is adapted for a four-motor 
equipment used on heavy types of cars. The motors used in 
connection with this controller are usually 60 horse-power. The 
G. E. K-14 controller has thirteen positions, of which seven 
are in series and six in multiple. 


49 


First Position 

When on the first position of controller, the motors are in 
a series multiple connection with exterior resistance; the cur¬ 
rent entering rheostatic field through wire marked R-i, leaving 
at wire marked R-7, which is in connection with wire No. 19 
of each controller, which is in connection with reverse switch at 
terminals of motors 1 and 3. The circuit from this point for 
motors are the same as that of a type K-6 controller. 

Second Position 

When on the second position of controller, the circuit is 
the same as that of the first position, with this exception: the 
current entering the rheostatic field through wire marked R-2, 
leaving at wire marked R-7, which is in connection with wire 
No. 19. 

Third Position 

When on the third position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the second position, with this exception: the 
current enters the rheostatic field through wire marked R-3, 
leaving at wire marked R-7, which is in connection with wire 

No. 19. 

Fourth Position 

When on the fourth position of controller, the circuit is 
the same as that of the third position, with this exception: 
the current enters the rheostatic field through wire marked 
R-4, leaving at wire marked R-7, which connects with wire 
No. 19. 


5° 


Fifth Position 

When on the fifth position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the fourth position, with this exception: the 
current enters the rheostatic field through wire marked R-5, 
leaving at wire marked R-7, which is in connection with wire 
No. 19. 

Sixth Position 

When on the sixth position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the fifth position, with this exception: the cur¬ 
rent enters the rheostatic field through wire marked R-6, leav¬ 
ing at wire marked R-7, which connects with wire No. 19. 

Seventh Position 

When on the seventh position of controller, the circuit is 
the same as that of the fourth position, with this exception: the 
four motors are in a series multiple connection without exterior 
resistance; the current being direct to motor terminals. This 
is called the series safe running position. 

Eighth Position 

When on the eighth position of controller, the four motors 
are in a multiple connection with exterior resistance; the cur¬ 
rent entering the rheostatic field through wires marked R-2, 
leaving at wire marked R-7, which connects with wires Nos. 19 
and 15. 

Ninth Position 

When on the ninth position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that on the eighth position, with this exception: the 


5i 


current enters the rheostatic field through wire marked R-3, 
leaving at wire marked R-7, which connects with wires Nos. 19 
and 15. 

Tenth Position 

When on the tenth position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the ninth position, with this exception: the cur¬ 
rent enters the rheostatic field through wire marked R-4, leav¬ 
ing at wire marked R-7, which connects with wires Nos. 19 
and 15. 

Eleventh Position 

When on the eleventh position of controller, the circuit is 
the same as that of the tenth position, with this exception; the 
current enters the rheostatic field through wire marked R-5, 
leaving at wire marked R-7, which connects with wires Nos. 19 
and 15. 

Twelfth Position 

When on the twelfth position of controller, the circuit is 
the same as that of the eleventh position, with this exception: 
the current enters the rheostatic field through wire marked R-6, 
leaving at wire marked R-7, which connects with wires Nos. 19 
and 15. 

Thirteenth Position 

When on the thirteenth position of controller, the circuit is 
the same as that of the twelfth position, with this exception: the 
motors are in a multiple connection without exterior resistance, 
the current being direct to motor terminals. This is called the 
multiple or parallel safe running position. 


5 2 


Explanatory Note. Reverse Switch Connections 

The connection of motors Nos. i and 2 are at left-hand side 
of reverse cylinder. The connection of motors Nos. 3 and 4 
are at right-hand of reverse cylinder. 

Wire No. 19 is in connection with motors Nos. 1 and 3; wire 
No. 15 is in connection with motors 2 and 4. 

The four lower contact wipers of reverse cylinder, located 
on the left-hand side, are for No. 1 motor connection. The 
four top contact wipers on the left-hand side of reverse cylinder 
are for No. 2 motor’s connection. The four lower contact 
wipers on the right-hand side of reverse cylinder are for No. 3 
motor’s connection. The four top contact wipers on the right- 
hand side of reverse cylinder are for No. 4 motor’s connection. 

G. E. TYPE K-8 OR 9 CONTROLLER 

The G. E. K-8 or 9 controller are of a series parallel type, 
and adapted for a series multiple circuit, of which there are nine 
positions; five for series running positions, and four for parallel. 

First Position 

When on the first position of controller, the two motors 
are in a series connection, with exterior resistance, the current 
entering the rheostatic field through wire marked R-i, leav¬ 
ing at wire marked R-5, which connects with wire No. 19 of 
each controller, which is in connection with reverse switch at 
terminals of motor No. 1. 

Second Position 

When on the second position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the first position, with this exception: the cur- 


Car Wiring for ft-8 Controllers with two motors, metallic Circuit System 


53 




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54 


rent enters the rheostatic field through wire marked R-2, leav¬ 
ing at wire marked R-5, which connects with wire No. 19. 

Third Position 

When on the third position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the second position, with this exception: the 
current enters the rheostatic field through wire marked R-3, 
leaving at wire marked R-5, which connects with wire No. 19. 

Fourth Position 

When on the fourth position of controller, the circuit is 
the same as that of the third position, with this exception: the 
current enters the rheostatic field through wire marked R-4, 
leaving at wire marked R-5, which connects with wire No. 19. 

Fifth 'Position 

When on the fifth position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the fourth position, with this exception: the 
two motors are in a series connection without exterior resist¬ 
ance; the current being direct to motor terminals. This is 
called the series safe running position. 

Sixth Position 

When on the sixth position of controller, the two motors are 
in a multiple or parallel connection with exterior resistance; the 
current entering the rheostatic field through wire marked R-2, 
leaving at wire marked R-5, which connects with wires Nos. 19 
and 15. 


55 


Seventh Position 

When on the seventh position of controller, the circuit is 
the same as that of the sixth position, with this exception: the 
current enters the rheostatic field through wire marked R-3, 
leaving at wire marked R-5, which connects with wires Nos. 19 
and 15. 

Eighth Position 

When on the eighth position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the seventh position, with this exception: the 
current enters the rheostatic field through wire marked R-4, 
leaving at wire marked R-5, which connects with wires Nos. 19 
and 15. 

Ninth Position 

When on the ninth position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the eighth position, with this exception: the two 
motors are in a multiple or parallel connection without exterior 
resistance; the current being direct to motor terminals. This 
is called the multiple or parallel safe running positions. 

Explanatory Note 

The motor connection of reverse switch terminals are the 
same as those of a type K-10 controller. 


WESTINGHOUSE 28-A CONTROLLER 

The direction of the current in connection with a Westing- 
house 28-A controller is identical to that of the General Electric 
up to and including the trolley contact wiper in controller. 


5 6 


When the controlling cylinder is on the first position, the 
current passes from the trolley contact wiper to the contact 
wiper marked R-i, that in connection by wire to diverter No. 2, 
leaving said diverter (rheostat, or resistance) circuit at termi¬ 
nal marked R-3, that in connection by wire to arc coil in con¬ 
troller. The negative lead of this coil being in connection with 
the lower right-hand corner binding-post of No. 1 motor’s cut¬ 
out switch, that in connection with the top right-hand binding- 
post of No. 1 motor’s cut-out switch, that being in connection 
with the left-hand binding-post of contact wiper of reverse switch 
(when speaking of the left-hand binding-post of the reversing 
switch); this is to be taken from the exact center of reversing 
switch disk; this in connection with the binding-post marked 
F-i -f; that in connection with the cable lead marked F-i 
—, which is the wire connecting with No. 1 motor’s field circuit, 
leaving same through wire marked F-i +; that in connec¬ 
tion with terminal in controller marked F-i —that in connec¬ 
tion with binding-post of reverse switch marked F-i —; that in 
connection with binding-post marked A-i + ; that in connection 
with wire in cable marked A-i -f ; which is the wire connecting 
with the positive brush-holder of No. 1 motor’s armature cir¬ 
cuit, leaving the same at the opposite brush-holder, and then 
through wire marked A-i—, which connects with terminal in 
controller marked A-i—, and that in connection with the top 
left-hand binding-post of No. 1 motor’s cut-out switch; that 
in connection with the bottom left-hand binding-post of No. 1 
motor’s cut-out switch; that in connection with the terminal and 
contact wiper marked R-4. The current at this point passes 
through a wire marked R-4, which is in connection with 
No. 1 diverter, leaving same at terminal marked R-5, which 


57 


is in connection with (through cylinder) the main circuit 
wire of No. 2 motor’s entire connection; that in connection 
with the lower left-hand binding-post of No. 2 motor’s cut-out 
switch; that in connection with the top left-hand binding-post 
of No. 2 motor’s cut-out switch, that in connection with the 
right-hand binding-post of reverse switch. The current then 
passes to the binding-post marked F-2 + ; that in connection 
with wire in cable marked «F-2 —, which is the wire connect¬ 
ing with No. 2 motor’s field circuit, leaving same at terminal 
and through wire marked F-2-f, connecting with wire in 
controller marked F-2—; that in connection with through 
reverse switch to binding-post marked A-2 + . The current 
then passes through wire marked A-2 —, which connects with 
the positive brush-holder of No. 2 motor’s armature circuit, 
leaving same at opposite brush-holder through wire marked 
A-2 + , which leads to and connects with the main ground 
wire at motor. 

The above is for two motors in series on first position, with 
Westinghouse 28-A controller in connection with No. 46 diver¬ 
ters. (“Diverter” in this system means the rheostat or re¬ 
sistance.) 

Second Position 

When using the second position the two motors are still 
in series, as on the first position, the course of the current being 
the same, but with this exception: that the No. 1 diverter is 
cut out of circuit, with current passing through No. 2 di¬ 
verter, as on the first position, which allows an inciease 
of current to motor terminals, giving an increased speed to 


armatures. 


5 « 


Third Position 

When using the third position the two motors are still in 
series, as on the first and second positions, the course of the 
current being the same; but with this exception: that about 
one-half of panels of No. 2 diverter are cut out, the current pass¬ 
ing to diverter through wire marked R-2, which allows an 
increase of current to motor terminals, giving an increase of 
speed to armature. 

Fourth Position 

When using the fourth position, the two motors are still in 
series as on the first, second, and third positions, the course of 
the current being the same, but with this exception: both of 
the diverters are cut out of the circuit, the current being direct 
to motor terminals, giving a still greater increase of speed to 
armature; this is the first direct or safe running position on con¬ 
troller , marked one-half speed on dial plate. 

Fifth Position 

When using the fifth position, the two motors are placed 
in a parallel or multiple connection, with the No. 2 diverter 
in connection with same. On this position the diverter wires, 
marked R-4 and R-5, act as a ground connection for No. 1 
motor’s circuit, they being in connection with the main ground 
wire in controller. The No. 2 motor’s circuit is held in con¬ 
nection by the main circuit wire of No. 1 motor’s connection. 

Sixth Position 

When using the sixth position, the two motors are still in 
multiple, the course of the current being the same as on the 


59 


fifth position, but with this exception: about one-half of the 
panels of No. 2 diverter are cut out of circuit, the current pass¬ 
ing to diverter though wire marked R-2, which allows an in¬ 
crease of current to motor terminals, giving an increased speed 
to armatures. 


Seventh Position 

When using the seventh position, the two motors are still 
held in multiple, the course of the current being the same as 
on the fifth and sixth positions, but with this exception: the 
entire diverter circuit being cut out, the current being direct 
to motor terminals, which allows the maximum speed of arma¬ 
ture. This is the second direct or safe running position on 
controller, marked full speed on dial plate. 


WESTINGHOUSE 28 K. B. CONTROLLER 

The Westinghouse 28 K. B. Controller is constructed for 
a four-motor equipment, and is of the series parallel type. 
There are five positions in series and five in parallel. The 
motors when using the series position are in a series multiple 
connection. Motors Nos. 1 and 3 and Nos. 2 and 4 are in 
multiple. 


First Position 

When on the first position with controller, the four motors 
are in a series multiple connection with full exterior resistance 
in circuit. The current entering the rheostat at wire R-i and 
leaving at wire R-5. 


6 o 



Second Position 

When on the second position of controller, the circuit is 
the same as that of the first position, with this exception: a 
part of the resistance is cut out by current entering rheostat 
through wire R-i and leaving at wire R-4. 




■ V V 


Fig. 15. 




















6i 


Third Position 

When on the third positon of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the second position, with this exception: the 
current entering the rheostat at wire R-i and leaving at wire 

R-3- 

Fourth Position 

When on the fourth position of controller, the circuit is 
the same as that of the third position, with this exception: the 
current entering the rheostat at wire R-2 and leaving at wire 

R-3- 

Fifth Position 

When on the fifth position of controller, the motors are in 
a series multiple connection without exterior resistance. This 
is known as the series safe running position. 

Sixth Position 

When on the sixth position of controller, the motors are in 
a multiple connection with exterior resistance. The current 
entering rheostat at wire R-4 and leaving at wire R-5. 

Seventh Position 

When on the seventh position of controller, the circuit is 
the same as that of the sixth position, with this exception: the 
current entering the rheostat at wire R-4 and leaving at wire 
R-5 and R-i. 

Eighth Position 

When on the eighth position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the seventh position, with this exception: the 


62 


current entering the rheostat at wires R-2 and R-4 and leav¬ 
ing at wires R-i and R-5. 

Ninth Position 

When on the ninth position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the eighth position, with this exception: the cur¬ 
rent entering the rheostat at wires R-4 and R-2 and leaving 
at wires R-3 and R-5. 

Tenth Position 

When on the tenth position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the ninth position, with this exception; the four 
motors are in a multiple connection, without exterior resist¬ 
ance. This is known as the parallel safe running position. 

G. E. K-27 CONTROLLER 

The G. E. type K-27 controller is designed for a two-motor 
equipment, and is of a series parallel type. There are eight 
positions on controller, four in series, and four in parallel. 

First Position 

When on the first position of controller, the two motors are 
in a series connection with exterior resistance. The current 
entering rheostat at wire R-i and leaving at wire R-5. 

Second Position 

When on the second position of controller, the circuit is 
the same as that of the first position, with this exception: the 
current enters rheostat at wire R-2, leaving at wire R-5. 


C ar Wiring for 2 - if2 7 Controllers 

S? 

2 Motors G.£. 


63 














































































































































































































































64 


Third Position 

When on the third position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the second position, with this exception: the 
current enters rheostat at wire R-3, leaving at wire R-5. 

Fourth Position 

When on the fourth position of controller, the circuit is 
the same as that of the third position, with this exception: the 
two motors are in series without exterior resistance. This is 
known as a series safe running position. 

Fifth Position 

When on the fifth position of controller, the two motors 
are in a multiple connection with exterior resistance. The 
current entering rheostat at wire R-2, leaving at wire R-5. 

Sixth Position 

When on the sixth position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the fifth position, with this exception: the cur¬ 
rent enters rheostat at wire R-3, leaving at wire R-5. 

Seventh Position 

When on the seventh position of controller, the circuit is 
the same as that of the sixth position, with this exception: the 
current enters rheostat at wire R-4, leaving at wire R-5. 

Eighth Position 

When on the eighth position of controller, the two motors 
are in a multiple connection without exterior resistance. This 
is known as the parallel safe running position. 


6S 


G. E. K-i2 CONTROLLER 

This type of controller is constructed for a four-motor equip¬ 
ment. There are nine positions on controller, of which five 
are in series and four in parallel. 

First Position 

When on the first position of controller, the four motors are 
in a series multiple connection with exterior resistance. The 
current enters rheostat at wire R-i and leaves at wire R-5. 

Second Position 

When on the second position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the first position, with this exception: the cur¬ 
rent enters rheostat at wire R-2, leaving at wire R-5. 

Third Position 

When on the third position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the second position, with this exception: the 
current enters rheostat at wire R-3, leaving at wire R-5. 

Fourth Position 

When on the fourth position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the third position, with this exception: the cur¬ 
rent enters rheostat at wire R-4, leaving at wire R-5. 

Fifth Position 

When on the fifth position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the fourth position, with this exception: the 


66 


four motors are in a series multiple connection without exterior 
resistance. This is known as the series safe running position. 

Sixth Position 

When on the sixth position of controller, the four motors 
are in a multiple connection with exterior resistance. The 
current enters rheostat at wire R-2, leaving at wire R-5. 

Seventh Position 

When on the seventh position of controller, the circuit is the 
same as that of the sixth position, with this exception: the cur¬ 
rent enters rheostat at wire R-3, leaving at wire R-5. 

Eighth Position 

When on the eighth position of controller, the circuit is 
the same as that of the seventh position, with this exception: 
the current enters rheostat at wire R-4, leaving at wire R-5. 

Ninth Position 

When on the ninth position of controller, the four motors 
are in a multiple connection without exterior resistance. This 
is known as the parallel safe running position. 

MULTIPLE-UNIT SYSTEM 

» 9 

A Multiple Unit System allows of two or more motor units 
to be coupled for train operation. Each unit consists of a 
motor car equipped usually with two motors and their exterior 
resistance. A controlling device consisting of contactors for 
governing same for acceleration; the entire number of contac- 


67 


tors and their installation is called a contactor box or motor¬ 
controlling device. The contactors are operated by a master 
control circuit for establishing the various connections for 
motor circuit and exterior resistance circuit. Each motor car 
or unit is equipped with four third-rail shoes, together with the 
necessary wiring for motor rheostatic and trolley connections. 
Each unit has a bus and train line, composed of one or more 
wires, extending the entire length of car, terminating in coupler 
sockets for the purpose of forming connections for two or 
more cars. The bus line is a trolley line, and is so con¬ 
nected that providing only one third-rail shoe is in contact 
with the third rail, all other cars in train would be energized 
through this, for operation, where two or more cars constitute 
a train. 

The bus line is made continuous through a jumper wire, 
connecting the two cars. 


TRAIN LINE 

The train line consists of a cable, having several wires, in¬ 
sulated one from the other, extending the entire length of car, 
and terminating with coupler sockets. This line is in connec¬ 
tion with the master controller so that each individual unit can 
be operated automatically, from one master controlling device. 

With this method of control, any individual unit can be 
dropped from circuit without interfering with other units in 
train operation. 

Each motor unit is protected by circuit-breaker and fuses 
of each individual circuit, so- that when an electrical defect pre¬ 
sents itself, the fuse or circuit-breaker of that circuit will open 
same, preventing further trouble. 


68 


G. E. TYPE M CONTROL C-6 CONTROLLER 
First Position or Step 

When the master control cylinder is thrown on the first 
position or step, wire No. 8, which is in connection with the 
reversing switch and reverser operating coil, this being ener¬ 
gized by trolley, sets reverser for forward direction of car, en¬ 
ergizing wire No. 15 in diagram, completing its circuit through 
operating coil of contactor No. 1, leaving at wire No. 14, con¬ 
necting with operating coil of contactor No. 2, leaving at wire 
No. 13, connecting with operating coil of contactor No. 3, leav¬ 
ing at wire No. 12, connecting with operating coil of contactor 
No. 11, leaving at wire No. 11, connecting with through inter¬ 
lock of contactor No. 12, to wire No. 1, which grounds to con¬ 
trolling cylinder of master controller, closing same. On this 
position the two motors are in a series position with exterior 
resistance. 

Second Position or Step 

The master control cylinder on the second position retains 
the same circuit as that of the first position, except that wire No. 
3 is in circuit and energized. 

Wire No. 3 connects with the operating coil of contactor 
No. 5, leaving at wire No. 32, to ground, and closing this con¬ 
tactor. On this position the two motors are in a series connec- 

» 0 

tion with a portion of exterior resistance cut-out. 

Third Position or Step 

The master control cylinder on the third position or step 
retains the same circuit as that of the second position or step, 


6g 


with this exception: wire No. 3 being dropped from circuit, 
wire No. 4 being closed in circuit, connecting with four tubular 



rheostatic tubes, leaving at wire No. 41, connecting with operat¬ 
ing coil of contactor No. 6, leaving at wire No. 31, connecting 
with operating coil of contactor No. 5, leaving at wire No. 32 



























































































































































7 ° 


to ground, closing contactors Nos. 5 and 6. On this position 
the two motors are in a series connection with a portion of 
exterior existence being cut out. 

Fourth Position or Step 

The master control cylinder on the fourth position retains 
the same circuit as that of the third position, with this excep¬ 
tion: wire No. 4 is dropped from the circuit, wire No. 5 is 
closed in circuit with two tubular rheostatic tubes, leaving at 
wire No. 51, connecting with operating coil of contactor No. 7, 
leaving at wire No. 41, connecting with operating coil of con¬ 
tactor No. 6, leaving at wire No. 31, connecting with operating 
coil of contactor No. 5, leaving at wire No. 32, to ground. Con¬ 
tactors Nos. 5 and 6 are retained by circuit of No. 5 wire; con¬ 
tactor No. 7 being closed on this circuit with wire No. 5. On 
this position the two motors are in a series connection with a 
portion of exterior resistance cut out. 

Fifth Position or Step 

The master control cylinder on the fifth position retains 
the same circuit as that of the fourth position, with this excep¬ 
tion: wire No. 5 is dropped from circuit, wire No. 7 being 
closed in circuit, connecting with operating coil of contactor 
No. 10, leaving at wire No. 71, connecting with operating coil 
of contactor No. 9, leaving at wire No. 6, connecting with op¬ 
erating coil of contactor No. 8, leaving at wire No. 51, connect¬ 
ing with operating coil of contactor No. 7, leaving at wire No. 
41, connecting with operating coil of contactor No. 6, leaving 
at wire No. 31, connecting with operating coil of contactor No. 5, 
leaving at wire No. 32, to ground. Contactors Nos. 5, 6, and 7 


7 1 


are retained by circuit of No. 7 wire; contactor No. 8 being 
closed with this circuit. On this position the two motors are 
in a series connection without exterior resistance, the current 
being direct to motor terminals. 



Fig. 18. — G. E. C.-6 Controller, 

















72 


Sixth Position or Step 

The master control cylinder on the sixth position or step 
closes the circuit of wire No. 2, which is a ground connection. 
Wire No. 1 is dropped from circuit. Wire No. 15 retains con¬ 
tactors Nos. 1 and 2 and closing contactors Nos. 4, 12, and 13. 
Wire No. 5 is closed in circuit, connecting with operating coil 
of contactor No. 1, leaving at wire No. 4, connecting with op¬ 
erating coil of contactor No. 2, leaving at wire No. 13, connect¬ 
ing with operating coil of contactor No. 4, leaving at wire No. 23, 
connecting with operating coil of contactor No. 12, leaving at 
wire No. 22, connecting with operating coil of contactor No. 13, 
leaving at wire No. 21, connecting with wire No. 2, through 
interlock of contactor No. n, to ground. On this position the 
two motors are placed in parallel with exterior resistance. 

Seventh Position or Step 

When the master control cylinder is on the seventh position, 
the same circuit is retained as that of the sixth position, with 
this exception: wire No. 4 is closed in circuit, with four tubular 
rheostatic tubes, leaving at wire No. 41, connecting with oper¬ 
ating coil of contactor No. 6, leaving at wire No. 31, connect¬ 
ing with operating coil of contactor No. 5, leaving at wire No. 
32, to ground; closing contactors Nos. 5 and 6. On this posi¬ 
tion the two motors are in parallel with a portion of exterior 
resistance cut out. 


Eighth Position or Step 

When the master control cylinder is on the eighth position, 
the same circuit is retained as that of the seventh position, with 


73 


this exception: wire No. 4 is dropped from circuit, wire No. 5 
is closed in circuit, connecting with two tubular rheostatic 
tubes, leaving at wire No. 51, connecting with operating coil 
of contactor No. 7, leaving at wire No. 41, connecting with 
operating coil of contactor No. 6, leaving at wire No. 3, connect¬ 
ing with operating coil of contactor No. 5, leaving at wire No. 
32, to ground; closing contactor No. 7. On this position the 
two motors are in parallel with a portion of exterior resistance 
cut out. 


Ninth Position or Step 

When the master control cylinder is on the ninth position, 
the same circuit is retained as that of the eighth position, with 
this exception: wire No. 5 is dropped from circuit, wire No. 6 
is closed in circuit, connecting with operating coil of contactor 
No. 8, leaving at wire No. 51, connecting with operating coil of 
contactor No. 7, leaving at wire No. 41, connecting with oper¬ 
ating coil of contactor No. 6, leaving at wire No. 31, connect¬ 
ing with operating coil of contactor No. 5, leaving at wire 
No. 32, to ground; closing contactor No. 8. On this position 
the two motors are in parallel, with a portion of exterior resist¬ 
ance cut out. 


Tenth Position or Step 

When the master control cylinder is on the tenth position, 
the same circuit is retained as that of the ninth position, with 
this exception: wire No. 6 being dropped from circuit, wire No. 7 
is closed in circuit, connecting with operating coil of contactor 
No. 10, leaving at wire No. 71, connecting with operating coil 
of contactor No. 9, leaving at wire No. 6, connecting with op- 


74 


crating coil of contactor No. 8, leaving at wire No. 51, connect¬ 
ing with operating coil of contactor No. 7, leaving at wire No. 
41, connecting with operating coil of contactor No. 6, leaving 
at wire No. 31, connecting with operating coil of contactor 
No. 5, leaving at wire No. 32, to ground. On this position 
the two motors are in parallel, without exterior resistance. 

MOTOR CIRCUIT IN CONNECTION WITH G. E. TYPE M 

CONTROL C-6 CONTROLLER 
DIRECTION OF CURRENT 

First Position 

From third-rail shoe to main switch, to main fuse, to cir¬ 
cuit-breaker, to contactors Nos. 1, 2, and 3, through wire R-i, 
connecting with rheostatic circuit, leaving at wire R-7, con¬ 
necting with reverse!*. When reverse!* is thrown for motor 
connections, wire R-7 is placed in connection with wire A-i, 
connecting with brush-holder of armature circuit of No. 1 
motor, passing through armature circuit, leaving at opposite 
brush-holder through wire AA-i, connecting with reverser, 
leaving at wire F-i, connecting with field circuit of No. 1 motor, 
consisting of two or four fields in a series connection, leaving at 
wire E-i, connecting with contactor No. n, leaving at wire C, 
connecting with reverser, leaving at wire A-2, connecting with 
brush-holder of armature circuit o'f motor No. 2, passing 
through armature circuit, leaving at opposite brush-holder 
through wire A A-2, connecting with reverser, leaving at wire 
F-2, connecting with field circuit of motor No. 2, consisting 
of two or four fields in a series connection, leaving at wire E-2, 
connecting with main ground wire. On this position the 


75 


motors are in series, having in circuit four blocks of exterior 
resistance. 

Second Position 

On this position the motor circuit is the same as that of 
the first position, with this exception: a part of the resistance 
is dropped from circuit by the closing of contactor No. 5. On 
this position there are three blocks of exterior resistance in 
series with the two motors. 

Third Position 

On this position the circuit is the same as that of the sec¬ 
ond position, with this exception: a part of the resistance is 
dropped from circuit by the closing of contactor No. 6. The 
current entering the rheostatic circuit through wire R-4. On 
this position the motors are in series, having in circuit two 
blocks of exterior resistance. 

Fourth Position 

On this position the circuit is the same as that of the third 
position, with this exception: a part of the resistance is dropped 
from circuit by the closing of contactor No. 7. The current 
entering the rheostatic circuit through wire R-5. On this 
position the motors are in series, having in circuit one block 
of exterior resistance. 

Fifth Position 

On this position the circuit is the same as that of the fourth 
position, with this exception: all exterior resistance being cut 


7<5 


out by the closing of contactors Nos. 8, 9, and io. The current 
leaving contactor No. 9, through wire No. 7, for motor circuit. 
On this position the motors are in series, the current being 
direct to motor terminals. 

Sixth Position 

On this position the motors are in a parallel connection; 
the current leading from the third-rail shoe to main switch, to 
main fuse, to circuit-breaker, connecting with contactors Nos. 1, 
2, and 4, leaving contactor No. 4, through wire R-2, for No. 1 
motor’s circuit, connecting with two blocks of resistance, leav¬ 
ing same at wire R-7, connecting with reverser, leaving at wire 
A-i, connecting with brush-holder of armature circuit of No. 1 
motor, passing through armature circuit, leaving at armature 
brush-holder through wire AA-i, connecting with reverser, 
leaving at wire F-i, connecting with field circuit of No. 1 motor, 
consisting of two or four fields in series connection, leaving at 
wire E-i, connecting with contactor No. 13, to ground. Also, 
wire R-7 connects with contactor No. 12, the current leaving 
at wire C, connecting with reverser, for No. 2 motors circuit, 
leaving at wire A-2, connecting with brush-holder of arma¬ 
ture circuit of motor No. 2, passing through armature circuit, 
leaving at opposite brush-holder through wire A A-2, connect¬ 
ing with reverser, leaving at wire F-2, connecting with field 
circuit of motor No. 2, consisting of two or four fields in a 
series connection, leaving at wire E-2, connecting with main 
ground wire. On this position the motors are in parallel, 
having in circuit two blocks of exterior resistance. 


77 


Seventh Position 

On this position the motor circuits are the same as that of 
the sixth position, with this exception: a part of the resistance 
is dropped from circuit, by closing contactors Nos. 5 and 6. 
The current entering the rheostatic circuit through wires R-3 
and R-4, leaving at wire R-7, connecting with reverser, for 
circuits of motor No. 1 and No. 2. On account of the shunt 
connection, the current leaves contactor No. 6 for rheostatic 
circuit. On this position the two motors are in parallel, hav¬ 
ing still in circuit two blocks of exterior resistance. 

Eighth Position 

On this position the motor circuits are the same as those 
of the seventh position, with this exception: a part of the re¬ 
sistance is dropped from circuit by closing contactor No. 7. 
The current entering the rheostatic circuit through wires R-3, 
R-4, and R-5, leaving at R-7, connecting with reverser, for 
circuits of motors Nos. 1 and 2. On account of the shunt con¬ 
nection, the current leaves contactor No. 7, through wire R-5, 
for rheostatic circuit. On this position the two motors are in 
parallel, having in circuit two blocks of exterior resistance. 

Ninth Position 

On this position the motor circuits are the same as those of 
the eighth position, with this exception: a part of the resist¬ 
ance is dropped from circuit by closing contactor No. 8. The 
current entering the rheostatic circuit through wires R-3, R-4, 
and R-6, leaving at R-7, connecting with reverser, for circuits 
of motors Nos. 1 and 2. On account of the shunt connection, 


78 


the current leaves contactor No. 8, through wire R-6, for rheo¬ 
static circuit. On this position the two motors are in parallel, 
having in circuit one block of exterior resistance. 

Tenth Position 

On this position the motor circuits are the same as those of 
the ninth position, with this exception: the entire rheostatic 
circuit is dropped by the closing of contactors Nos. 9 and 10. 
The current leaving contactor No. 10, through wire R-7, con¬ 
necting with reverser for circuits of motors Nos. 1 and 2. On 
this position the two motors are in parallel, with current direct 
to motor terminals. The safe running positions are 5 and 10, 
the unsafe running positions are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9, on 
account of having exteiior resistance in circuit. 

THE SPRAGUE G. E. MASTER CONTROLLER TYPE C-35 

The type C-35 controller consists of a cylinder mounted 
with cylinder contact plates or segments. These are divided 
into four sections, each section being insulated from the others, 
and containing two segments, excepting the top section, which 
has three. At the right hand of cylinder are installed ten con¬ 
tact fingers, which are in connection with trolley and operating 
circuit wires. The top contact finger is in connection with 

0 • 

wire No. 1, which is known as the accelerating wire. The 
second contact finger down from top of controller is in con¬ 
nection with wire No. 2, which is known as the series wire 
and also a retaining wire for certain contactors. The third 
contact finger down from top of controller is trolley for wire 
Nos. 1 and 2. The fourth contact wiper down from top of 


79 


controller is in connection with wire No. 3, which is known as 
the parallel wire. The fifth contact finger down from top of 
controller is trolley for wire No. 3. The sixth contact finger 
down from top of controller is main trolley. The seventh 









































































































































































































































































































8o 


contact finger down from top of controller is trolley connection 
for wires i, 2, 3, and 4. The eighth contact finger down from 
top of controller is in connection with wire No. 4, which is 
reverser wire for forward direction; also closing contactors 11, 
12, 1 and 10 for operation. The ninth contact finger down from 
top of controller is the trolley connection for wire No. 4. The 
tenth contact finger down from top of controller is in connec¬ 
tion with wire No. 5, which sets reverser for backward motion 
and closes contactors n, 12, 1, and 10. 

First Position. Series Lap Position 

When controlling cylinder is on first position, wires Nos. 4 
and 2 are energized. Wire No. 4 is in connection with operat¬ 
ing coil of reverser, setting same for forward direction of car. 
The negative terminal of operating coil is in connection with 
wire 4-A which connects with operating coil of contactor No. 

11, leaving at wire 4-B, connecting with operating coil of con¬ 
tactor No. 12, leaving at wire 4-C, connecting with operating 
coil of contactor No. 1, leaving at wire 4-D, connecting with 
operating coil of contactor No. 10, to ground. Wire No. 2 
connects with wire 2-A, through interlock of contactor No. 

12, connecting with interlock of contactor No. 5, leaving at 
wire 2-B, connecting with operating coil of contactor No. 3, 
which is the series contactor, leaving at wire 2-C, connect¬ 
ing with interlock of contactor No. 9, leaving at wire 2-E, 
connecting with a 192-ohm tube of resistance, leaving at 
wire 2—F through interlock of D. B. 113 relay, leaving at wire 
2-F-1, connecting with interlock of contactor No. 7, leaving 
at wire 2-F-2, connecting with interlock of contactor No. 6, 
leaving at wire 2-G, connecting with an 85-ohm tube of resist- 


8 1 


ance, leaving at wire 2-H, connecting with interlock of con¬ 
tactor No. 15, leaving at wire 2-J, connecting with an 85-ohm 
tube of resistance, leaving at wire 2-K, connecting with inter¬ 
lock of contactor No. 14, leaving at wire 2-L, connecting with 
an 85-ohm tube of resistance, leaving at wire 2-M, connecting 
with interlock of contactor No. 8, to ground. 

Series Position. First Step 

When controlling cylinder is on the series position, wires 
Nos. 4 and 2 retain the same circuit as on the first position. 
On this position wire No. 1 is energized, which connects with 
blow-out coils of D. B 112 relay, leaving at wire i-B, connect¬ 
ing with interlock of contactor No. 3, leaving at wire i-C, con¬ 
necting with interlock and operating coil of contactor No. 13, 
leaving at wire 2-N, which connects with wire 2-F through 
interlock of D. B. 113 relay, leaving at wire 2-F-1, connecting 
with interlock of contactor No. 7, leaving at wire 2-F-2, con¬ 
necting with interlock of contactor No. 6, leaving at wire 2-B, 
connecting with an 85-ohm tube of resistance, leaving at wire 
2-H, connecting with interlock of contactor No. 15, leaving at 
wire 2-J, connecting with an 85-ohm tube of resistance, leaving 
at wire 2-K, connecting with interlock of contactor No. 14, 
leaving at wire 2-L, connecting with an 85-ohm tube of resist¬ 
ance, leaving at wire 2-M, connecting with interlock of con¬ 
tactor No. 8, to ground. 


Second Step 

On this step a new circuit is established for wire No. 1. 
Wire i-B connects with wire I7C, through interlock of contac- 


82 


tor No. 3, connecting with wire i-D, through interlock of con¬ 
tactor No. 13 to wire i-E, connecting with a ioo-ohm tube of 
resistance, leaving at wire i-E, connecting with interlock of 
contactor No. 7, leaving at wire i-EE, connecting with wire 
2-P, connecting with interlock of contactor No. 6, also con¬ 
necting with operating coil of contactor No. 6, closing same; 
leaving at wire 2-H through circuit of No. 2 wire to ground. 

Third Step 

Wire i-B connects with wire i-C, through interlock of 
contactor No. 3, connecting with wire i-D, through interlock 
of contactor No. 13. Wire i-D connects with wire i-E, 
through a ioo-ohm tube of resistance, connecting with wire 
i-EE, connecting with interlock of contactor No. 7, connect¬ 
ing with wire i-F, through interlock of contactor No. 6, con¬ 
necting with wire i-G, through a ioo-ohm tube of resistance, 
connecting with interlock of contactor No. 15, which connects 
with operating coil of contactor No. 15 through wire 2-R, leav¬ 
ing at wire 2-S, connecting with operating coil of contactor 
No. 4, leaving at wire 2-K, connecting with interlock of con¬ 
tactor No. 14, leaving at wire 2-L, connecting with an 85-ohm 
tube of resistance, leaving at wire 2-M, connecting with inter¬ 
lock of contactor No. 8, to ground. 

m • 

Fourth Step 

On this step a new circuit is established for closing con¬ 
tactors 14 and 7, with wire No. 1. Wire i-B connects with 
wire i-C through interlock of contactor No. 3, which connects 
with interlock of contactor No. 13, leaving at wire i-D, which 


83 


connects with a ioo-ohm tube of resistance, leaving at wire i-E, 
connecting with interlock of contactor No. 7, leaving at wire 
1-EE, connecting with interlock of contactor No. 6, leaving at 
wire i-F, connecting with a ioo-ohm tube of resistance, leaving 
at wire i-G, connecting with interlock of contactor No. 15, 
leaving at wire i-H, connecting with a ioo-ohm tube of resist¬ 
ance, leaving at wire i-J, connecting with interlock of contactor 
No. 14, leaving at wire 2-U, connecting with operating coil of 
contactor No. 14, leaving at wire 2-V, connecting with operat¬ 
ing coil of contactor No. 7, leaving at wire 2-M, to ground. 

Fifth Step 

On this step a circuit is established for closing contactor 
No. 8, with wire No. 1. Wire i-B connects with interlock of 
contactor No. 3, leaving at wire i-C, connecting with inter¬ 
lock of contactor No. 13, leaving at wire i-D, connecting with 
a ioo-ohm tube of resistance, leaving at wire i-E, connecting 
with interlock of contactor No. 7, leaving at wire i-H, con¬ 
necting with a ioo-ohm tube of resistance, leaving at wire i-J, 
connecting with interlock of contactor No. 14, leaving at wire 
i-K, connecting with a ioo-ohm tube of resistance, leaving at 
wire i-L, connecting with interlock of contactor No. 8, leaving 
at wire 2-W, connecting with operating coil of contactor No. 8, 
to ground. 

Sixth Step 

On this step a new circuit is established for closing con¬ 
tactor No. 9, with wire No. 1. Wire i-B connects with inter¬ 
lock of contactor No. 3, leaving at wire i-C, connecting with 
interlock of contactor No. 13, leaving at wire i-D, connecting 


8 4 


with interlock of contactor No. 8, leaving at wire i-M, con¬ 
necting with interlock of contactor No. 9, leaving at wire i-N, 
connecting with interlock of contactor Nos. 2, leaving at wire 

1- P, connecting with four 125-ohm tubes of resistance in a 
series connection, leaving at wire i-Q, connecting with operat¬ 
ing coil of contactor No. 9, to ground. 

Note: When contactor No. 9 closes, contactors Nos. 3, 4, 
6, 7, 8, 13, and 14 open. 

7-A Position or Parallel Lap Position 

On this position contactors Nos. 2 and 5 are closed for 
parallel connections by wire No. 3. Contactors Nos. 1, 10, n, 
and 12 are retained by wire No. 4. Wire No. 2 is retaining 
wire for contactors on all parallel steps. Contactor No. 2 is a 
trolley connection for No. 2 motor’s circuit; contactor No. 5 
is ground for No. 1 motor’s circuit. 

Wire No. 3 connects with interlock of contactor No. 3, 
leaving at wire 3-A, connecting with operating coil of contactor 
No. 5, leaving at wire 3-B, connecting with operating coil of 
contactor No, 2, leaving at wire 3-C, connecting with inter¬ 
lock of contactor No. 9, leaving at wire 3-D, connecting with 
interlock of contactor No. 13, leaving at wire 2-E, connecting 
with a 192-ohm tube of resistance, leaving at wire 2-F, con¬ 
necting with interlock of D. B. 113 E relay, leaving at wire 

2- F-1, connecting with interlock of "contactor No. 7, leaving 
at wire 2-F-2, connecting with interlock of contactor No. 6, 
leaving at wire 2-G, connecting with an 85-ohm tube of resist¬ 
ance, leaving at wire 2-H, connecting with interlock of con¬ 
tactor No. 15, leaving at wire 2-J, connecting with an 85-ohm 
tube of resistance, leaving at wire 2-K, connecting with inter- 


85 


lock of contactor No. 14, leaving at wire 2-L, connecting an 
85-ohm tube of resistance, leaving at wire 2-M, connecting 
with interlock of contactor No. 8, to ground. 

Seventh Step 

On this step wire No. 1 is energized, closing contactor No. 6. 
Wire i-B connects with interlock of contactor No. 5, leaving 
at wire i-D, connecting with a ioo-ohm tube of resistance, 
leaving at wire i-E, connecting with interlock of contactor 
No. 7, leaving at wire i-EE, connecting with interlock of con¬ 
tactor No. 6, leaving at wire 2-P, connecting with operating 
coil of contactor No. 6, leaving at wire 2-H, through circuit of 
No. 2 wire, to ground. 

Eighth Step 

On this step a new circuit is established for closing con¬ 
tactors Nos. 15 and 4 with wire No. 1. Wire i-B connects 
with interlock of contactor No. 5, leaving at wire i-D, con¬ 
necting with a ioo-ohm tube of resistance, leaving at wire i-E, 
connecting with interlock of contactor No. 7, leaving at wire 
i-EE, connecting with interlock of contactor No. 6, leaving at 
wire i-F, connecting with a ioo-ohm tube of resistance, leaving 
at wire i-G, connecting with interlock of contactor No. 15, 
leaving at wire 2-R, connecting with operating coil of contactor 
No. 15, leaving at wire No. 2-S, connecting with operating coil 
of contactor No. 4, leaving at wire 2-K, through circuit of 
No. 2 wire, to ground. 

Ninth Step 

On this step a circuit is established for closing contactors 
Nos. 14 and 7 with wire No. 1. Wire i-B connects with inter- 


86 


lock of contactor No. 5, leaving at wire i-D, connecting with a 
ioo-ohm tube of resistance, leaving at wire i-E, connecting 
with interlock of contactor No. 7, leaving at wire i-EE, con¬ 
necting with interlock of contactor No. 6, leaving at wire i-F, 
connecting with a ioo-ohm tube of resistance, leaving at wire 
i-G, connecting with interlock of contactor No. 15, leaving at 
wire i-H, connecting with a ioo-ohm tube of resistance, leaving 
at wire i-J, connecting with interlock of contactor No. 14, 
leaving at wire 2-U, connecting with operating coil of contactor 
No. 14, leaving at wire 2-V, connecting with operating coil of 
contactor No. 7, leaving at wire 2-M, connecting with interlock 
of contactor No. 8, to ground. 

Tenth Step 

Wire i-B connects with interlock of contactor No. 5, leav¬ 
ing at wire i-D, connecting with a ioo-ohm tubes of resistance, 
leaving at wire i-E, connecting with interlock of contactor 
No. 7, leaving at wire i-H, connecting with a ioo-ohm 
tube of resistance, leaving at wire i-J, connecting with inter¬ 
lock of contactor No. 14, leaving at wire i-K, connecting 
with a ioo-ohm tube of resistance, leaving at wire i-L, 
connecting with interlock of contactor No. 8, leaving at 
wire 2-W, connecting with operating coil of contactor No. 8, 
to ground. 

Note: Contactor No. 13 closes after 8 has closed. 

Wire i-B connects with interlock of contactor No. 5, leav¬ 
ing at wire i-D, connecting with interlock of contactor No. 8, 
leaving at wire i-M, connecting with interlock of contactor 
No. 2, leaving at wire i-C, connecting with interlock of con¬ 
tactor No. 13, leaving at wire 2-N, connecting with operating 


87 

coil of contactor No. 13, leaving at wire 2-F, through circuit 
of No. 2 wire, to ground. 


MOTOR CIRCUIT 
First Position 

On this position the two motors are in series with full ex¬ 
terior resistance. 

Second Position 

On this position the two motors are in series with exterior 
resistance; three blocks of resistance being cut out by contactor 
No. 13. 

Third Position 

On this position the two motors are in series with exterior 
resistance of No. 1 motor’s circuit, one rheostatic block being 
droppjed out by contactor No. 6. 

Fourth Position 

On this position the two motors are in series with ex¬ 
terior resistance, having an additional block of resistance cut 
out by contactor No. 4. 


Fifth Position 

On this position the two motors are in series with exterior 
resistance of No. 1 motor’s circuit, having an additional block 
of resistance cut out by contactor No. 7* 


88 


Sixth Position 

On this position the two motors are in series without exterior 
resistance, being cut out by contactor No. 8. 

6- A Position 

On this position the two motors are in series without ex¬ 
terior resistance, the series connection being held by contactor 
No. 9. 

7- A Position 

On this position the two motors are in parallel with exterior 
resistance for each individual motor circuit. 

Seventh Position 

On this position the two motors arc in a parallel connection 
with one block of resistance cut out by contactor No. 6. 

Eighth Position 

On this position the two motors are in a parallel connection, 
having one block of resistance cut out on each motor’s circuit 
by contactors Nos. 15 and 4. 

Ninth Position 

On this position the two motors are in a parallel connection, 
having an additional block of resistance cut out on each motor’s 
circuit by contactors Nos. 14 and 7. 

Tenth Position 

On this position the two motors are in a parallel connection 
without exterior resistance, it being cut out by contactors Nos-. 
8 and 13. 


8 9 


WESTINGHOUSE UNIT SWITCH GROUP CONTROL 

The contactor type of controller employed is known as 
the Unit Switch Group Control, a complete controlling equip¬ 
ment of this type, for one car, consisting of one Unit Switch 
Group, one line switch, one reverse switch, two motorman’s 
multiple-control switches, one limit switch, one line relay 
switch, one set of seven point connectors and fourteen cells of 
storage battery. 

The Unit Switch Group consists of a number of independent 
or “unit” switches grouped together radially about a central 
reservoir and operated by small pneumatic cylinders, the valves 
of which are controlled by electro-magnets. The magnet 
valves which control the several unit switches are so inter¬ 
connected by simple mechanical interlock switches that the 
closing of one energizes the magnet of the switch next succeed¬ 
ing. The automatic progressive action thus provided is regu¬ 
lated by the “limit switch” so adjusted that the various switches 
are successively closed to afford a uniform acceleration with a 
constant motor current. The rate of acceleration is determined 
by the adjustment of the “limit switch,” the magnet of which 
is connected in series with the motor circuit so that the switch 
is opened and the progressive action of the unit switches arrested 
whenever the motor current reaches a predetermined amount 
for which the limit switch has been adjusted. 

As soon as the motor current falls below this amount the 
switch closes, and the progressive action of the unit switches 
is continued. 

The “line relay” is a switch placed in the operating circuit, 
the function of which is to protect the motors from an abnormal 


90 


rush of current in case the main line circuit is suddenly re¬ 
established after interruption. 

The “reverse switch” consists of an insulating block, 
mounted on a horizontal shaft, which carries two sets of metal 



Fig. 20. — W. H. Current Limit Relay. 


strips arranged to make contact with stationary fingers, which 
is operated forward and back in a simple straight-line motion 
by the pistons of two pneumatic cylinders. These cylinders 
are controlled by electro-magnetic valves, which are in turn 
governed by the controller. 















9 1 


Fig. 20 a shows diagrammatically the wiring and connections 
of the electro-magnetic valves, interlocks, and switches of one 
car equipped with Unit Switch Group type of contact. In 
following out on this diagram the various circuits and cycles of 


7 



















































































































































92 


operation it will be well to remember that, as in the drum type 
of control, all of the contacts on the drum of the multiple- 
control switch are electrically one, and that the function 
of this switch is to connect the low-voltage magnet cir¬ 
cuits to the positive of the battery. All of the magnets, 
with the exception of the limit-switch magnet, and line-relay 
magnet, have one terminal connected to the common return 
B—, which is in turn connected to the negative terminal of 
the battery. 

When the multiple-control switch is moved to the right so 
that the point marked i on the drum development corresponds 
with the stationary contacts, there is no circuit completed, 
hence no operation resulting. 

When the multiple-control switch drum is moved to position 
2, 6 and 2 are connected to B + , thus completing the battery 
circuit through the line-switch magnet and through the forward 
reverse magnet. The line-switch magnet opens the valve ad¬ 
mitting air to the line-switch cylinder, the piston of which 
closes line switch. The reverse magnet opens the valve which 
admits air to one of the reverse cylinders, throwing the reverser 
contacts to the “ahead” position. A circuit is then completed 
across the reverse interlock, between 2 and R, through the 
magnet of No. 6 switch, No. 6 switch closing, thence across 
No. 6 interlock through magnet of No. 7 switch. No. 7 switch 
closing completes the main line circuit through the motors with 
full resistance. This is known as the “switching notch” and 
should be used for coupling only. 

Upon moving the switch drum to position 3, the battery 
circuit is completed through the magnet of No. 8 switch and 
across the limit switch to magnets 9 and 10, n and 3, and 


93 



Fig. 20 b. — Unit Control 
Switch (closed). 



Fig. 20 c. — Unit Control 
Switch. 










94 


i and 2, these switches closing in the order given when full 
series is reached. 



Fig. 20/.—W. H. Muett Contactor Box. 


Upon moving the multiple-control switch handle to position 
No. 4, connection is established between B+ and No. 7 wire, 
thus completing circuit through magnet of No. 5 switch. This 
switch closing maintains the main motor circuit in full series 



Fig. 20 g. — Coupler Sockets. 

and drops out or opens all switches that have previously come 
in with the exception of Nos. 6 and 8, which are still held closed. 









95 


The circuit of magnet for switches Nos. 4, 12, and 13 is then 
completed across No. 7 interlock. These switches closing 
form the multiple connection of main motor circuit, No. 5 
switch dropping out or opening. The circuits are then once 
more completed through magnets of 9 and 10, 11 and 3, and 
1 and 2 switches, these switches again closing when full mul¬ 
tiple is reached. 

To throw off the controller the multiple-control switch 
handle should be brought to position 1, thus breaking all oper¬ 
ating circuits and opening all switches of Unit Switch Group 
and line switch. 

It should be understood that in the foregoing the magnets 
have simply opened valves, allowing air to pass into the cylin¬ 
ders of the various switches, compressed air being the force 
employed for closing of the switches. 

It will be noted that two sets of batteries are used. This 
is done so that one set may be charged while the other is 
discharging. The batteries are charged by throwing one set at 
a time in series with the light circuit. This is accomplished 
by means of two double-pole double-throw switches so con¬ 
nected that they are thrown both up or both down to change 
from one set of batteries to the other. 

Getting Train Ready for Service 

First start air pumps on all motor cars in train and allow 
the same to pump up to the full pressure for which the gov¬ 
ernors are set. 

Put on brake and operating box handle, placing the former 
at ‘‘release” and the latter in the middle position. 

Go through the train and see that (1) all plugs between 




9 6 


cars are in their sockets properly, (2) the air hose is coupled, 

(3) all cut-out cocks leading to the train pipe are open, and 

(4) the hand brakes are off. 

If the air train pipe and multiple unit train line are all 
right, open the air-cocks F-A and F-B leading to the control¬ 
lers and circuit-breaker on the several cars of the train, and 
close both battery switches (CC'), taking care to throw both 
of them either up or down. 

Operation of Train 

To start the train, first make sure that the brakes are re¬ 
leased and the brake handle in the release position, then press 
the latch in operating switch handle and bring the handle to 
position No. 1, on the right if it is desired to move ahead, or 
on the left if it is desired to back up. This is a prepara¬ 
tory motion and merely admits air to the breaker cylinder on 
each car, compressing the throw-out spring, and throwing in the 
circuit-breaker. 

Next move the handle slowly to position No. 3, i.e., against 
the projecting notch; this will throw all the reserve switches on 
the train to the forward or back position, as the case may be, 
exhaust the air from the release cylinder and admit air to 
operating cylinder. 

The controller on all the cars in the train will now notch 
up automatically one step at a time until full series position is 
reached, when they will stop. 

To throw the controller to full multiple, press the latch in 
operating handle and bring the handle to position No. 4, i.e., 
down against the brass pin. The controllers will now notch 
up automatically to the full “on” position. 


97 


The rate at which the controllers will notch up is governed 
by the limit switch. This switch is connected across the field 
of one of the motors and arranged so that when the current 
through the motors exceeds a certain amount the automatic 
action of the controllers is stopped and does not start again 
until the current falls once more below the limit. 

The limit switch on all cars should be set by the person 
properly authorized to do the same for a fixed maximum, and 
should not be tampered with in any way by the motorman. 

To throw the controllers off, bring the operating handle to 
position No. i. 

The controller may be stopped at any point while it is 
notching up by simply bringing the operating handle back to 
position No. 2. It should be remembered, however, that full 
series and full multiple are the only running positions for the 
controller, and it should not be allowed to stand on interme¬ 
diate points for more than a short time. 

When the controllers are on points between, “full series” 
and “full multiple” resistances are interposed in the motor cir¬ 
cuits, and if these are allowed to remain in circuit they are 
liable to be burned out. 

Should the circuit-breaker on any car in the train come out 
while running, throw the controllers off by bringing the handle 
to position No. 1. This will reset the circuit-breakers. 


9 8 


WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF TROUBLE 
Open-circuited Motors 

When you find that one of the motors is not working, have 
your conductor get off the car and while you apply the power 
let him watch to see which motor is working, which he can 
easily tell by the spinning of the wheels, then cut out the defec¬ 
tive motor so as to get power on the first position. 

When operating with a K or K-i controller, and No. i 
motor is open-circuited, the car cannot be operated until the 
fifth or first parallel position is reached. When the open cir¬ 
cuit is located in No. 2 motor’s circuit, No. 1 motor can be 
operated when the controlling cylinder is in position midway 
between the fourth and fifth positions. 

When operating with a type K-2 controller and No. 1 motor 
is open-circuited, the car cannot be operated until the sixth or 
first parallel position is reached. When the open circuit is 
located in No. 2 motor’s circuit, motor No. 1 can be operated 
when the controlling cylinder is in position midway between 
the fifth and sixth positions. This also refers to a type K-10, 
K-n, or K-12 as well. 

The motor nearest to the fuse box is termed No. 1 motor, 
and No. 2 motor is the farthest from the fuse box. In case that 
you cannot open the controller cover to cut out a motor in the 
regular way, you can get power on the first position by closing 
the armature and field circuits. To do this, you will discon¬ 
nect the motor connections of the defective motor, and take two 
short pieces of wire and connect (electrically) the two brush 
wires together, and the two field wires together, and then your 
car will start on the first position. This, of course, is not 


99 


the proper method of cutting out the motor, but it is shown 
only in case you were unable to open the controller cover and 
were operating your car on a line with a long headway; besides, 
controller covers are sometimes difficult to open, and if you did 
not have a pair of gas pliers or some similar tool it would be 
impossible for you to open it. 

When you have occasion to connect the brush leads and field 
leads together, as previously explained, you should not apply 
the power farther than the fourth position on a 7-point con¬ 
troller, and not farther than the fifth position on a K-2, K-10, 
or K-n controller. 


LAMPS 

In case of a burnt-out globe, you can light up your car by 
placing a copper cent in the lamp socket and then putting the 
lamp back again, or by breaking the globe and twisting the 
wires together you can obtain the same results. 

You should not experiment with this, however, unless you 
are positive that the carbon in the lamp is either broken or 
burnt off, because incandescent lamps are expensive. 

By holding the globe between you and the light, you can 
easily see if the carbon or filament is broken, or at night, when 
a lamp burns out, the conductor can sometimes see the defec¬ 
tive lamp arc as the carbon is burning off, and sometimes after 
it is entirely burnt off it will arc when the two ends of the 
filament touch each other, as the vibration of the car will do 
this or by jarring it. 

The better way to do would be to use the one-cent piece, 

because you can do it much quicker and it is more simply done; 

besides, the burnt-out lamp with the globe broken is not worth 

' , % 

» » 

» » v 

> > > 




IOO 


as much as the one that is not broken. Railroad companies 
get a rebate on lamps when returning burnt-out lamps where 
the globe is not broken. When you break a globe, you have 
to first turn off the lamp-circuit switch. At times you may turn 
it too far, and instead of turning it off it is again thrown on, 
and when you put in a short-circuited lamp you will receive a 
shock. 

In case of failure to throw off the power on any style of con¬ 
troller, do not forget that by throwing off the overhead switch 
cuts out all connections with the motor. 

When a car jumps the track and the track is in proper con¬ 
dition, you should not fail to report the matter to the proper 
person, so that the car may be run in the inspection shop and 
examined for sprung axles, broken flanges, or loose wheels, etc. 

When an axle is sprung, you will easily notice it while 
riding on the car by the see-saw motion it makes. In this case 
you should be cautious in going over crossings, taking switches, 
and in passing around curves, as the car is liable to become 
derailed. 

When an axle is sprung so badly that the wheels will not 
stay on the track, the car should be moved ahead or back, until 
you find a place in the wheels that fits the track, then make one 
of the wheels fast to the truck frame and tow or push it to the 
car house. If you cannot get a rope or a chain, use a draw 
bar to secure the wheel. 

If it is a double-motor car, cut out the motor that has the 
wheels locked, and use the other motor to help the car along. 

If you have a car that has a broken wheel flange, you should 
operate very slowly and cautiously over curves and track that 
has bad joints, even if it is a straight track, and the greater 


< < 

/ ' v 


IOI 


the piece broken out of the wheel flange, the more cautious you 
should be. 

If it should occur that you cannot get around a curve with¬ 
out derailing the car, you should back up the car until you 
get a place in the wheel that is not broken, and then either 
tie it with rope or chain, or place a draw bar so as to lock the 
wheels and then push the car around. When you can get a 
rope or chain, it is much preferable to lock the wheels with 
it than to use a diaw bar, as the draw bar is liable to become 
wedged in the truck frame and become difficult to remove. 

If the car is a single-motor car and is standing on a curve, 
it would be advisable to pull it back off of the curve, and then 
when you are moving ahead keep moving until you get around 
the curve. I state this on the supposition that the motor 
should be on the forward end in that direction, and if it is and 
you try to push it out of a curve, you would be liable to throw 
the rear end off the track. 

Broken flanges are generally caused by striking curves too 
hard, going over railroad crossings too fast, or running over 
obstacles on the track such as horseshoes, spikes, and pieces 
of iron. When the tread of the wheel is badly worn, generally 
the flange on one wheel is worn much thinner than the other, 
and in striking a curve hard it is very liable to break off, as 
also in going over a crossing too fast with the car running on 
the flanges and not on the tread. This generally occurs where 
new special work has been lately put in on the track. 

With a broken axle, nothing can be done by the motorman 
but telephone to the proper place for the wrecking crew, and 
also telling the crew on the first car going in the opposite direc¬ 
tion, so that if it is possible they can notify the inspectors of 


102 


the trouble, who in turn will look out for the operation of the 
line in reference to maintaining headways. 

With a broken gear, the only thing that you can do is to 
lock the wheels and get the car to the car house; or, if it hap¬ 
pens somewhere near the end of the line, so that the car can 
cross over and get on the other track, you should call for the 
wrecking crew. In case of any unusual noise with your car, 
you should report it at once, so that it can be examined and 
the trouble located. 

In case of a double-truck car getting off the track, and you 
try to get it replaced, you will find it advantageous to work 
from the motor end, because if you work from the light end and 
move the car with the light end in front, the truck is liable to 
swing further away from the track. If it is off in a switch in 
such a way that the light wheels will not climb the rail, by 
backing up it will drop on the rails at the frog or switch. 

When a car has a charged platform, you will generally find 
it on the No. i motor end of the car. When taking on pas¬ 
sengers you should be sure that they are safely on the car be¬ 
fore you apply the power, or they might receive a shock. Of 
course you should receive assistance from the conductor in 
this respect. 

When slowing down at a crossing to let persons board your 
car, do not apply power until they are safely on the car. When 
a platform is charged and you apply the power just as a person 
is taking hold of grab handle, he would receive a shock which 
might result seriously and also would be a case of liability 
against the company. 

In case you find smoke coming out of a motor you should 
cut out that motor at once, or it might result in serious damage 


io3 



Fig 21. — Peckham Swivel Truck Typ 










104 


to the armature or field. When you have a controller with a 
grounded cylinder and you want to operate your car from that 
end, you can proceed as follows: Throw off the overhead 
switch on the end that you wish to operate from, then at the 
other end of car reverse for the backward motion and, placing 
controller in the first safe position, take off the controlling 
handle and operate the car from the front end with the over¬ 
head switch. 

When cars are equipped with electric headlights, motor- 
men should be sure to report when they find any headlight glass 
broken, so that glass may be replaced and the circuit protected 
from water or snow. 

A car with a grounded lightning arrester will blow a fuse 
when the car is at rest with both overhead switches on. The 
lightning arrester is placed underneath the car body and at the 
No. i end on single-truck cars. You will find that there are 
two wires connected to one end, and one wire to the other end; 
also a small wire which is the light circuit ground wire. To 
be able to operate your car and prevent the blowing of fuses, 
you should disconnect the two wires from the lightning arrester 
and connect them together and operate your car in the usual 
manner, or else remove the main ground wire. This refers 
to a T. H lightning arrester. 

A motorman who takes an interest in his work will familiar¬ 
ize himself with the different parts of the car body and truck, 
so as to be able to report on the condition of the car in an in¬ 
telligent manner when laying up a car in the car house. 


!05 


TROLLEY 

A complete trolley consists of a base, stand, and trolley pole, 
to which is attached a trolley wheel. This entire forms a cir¬ 
cuit from trolley wire to car circuit. The wiring of car circuit 
begins with the wire connecting with trolley base. 

BASE 

The base is of cast iron, and is secured by bolts to roof- 
board of car (also called trolley base-board). The base sup¬ 
ports the spindle, which canies the trolley stand. The stand 
is equipped with springs for giving pressure against trolley lines 
with trolley wheel. The stand also has a socket which receives 
and secures the trolley pole or trolley pressure bar. The pole 
or pressure bar is made of steel tubing, which is formed by 
graduating dies, which give the proper shape and dimension. 
The length of trolley pole or bars varies from 13 to 15 feet. The 
diameter is 2\ inches, and f inches at the ends, respectively. 
At the smaller end of pole is attached the trolley head or fork, 
which supports the trolley or under-running wheel. The wheel 
has a graphite bearing, which dispenses with the necessity of 
oiling same. 

The proper handling of the trolley pole falls to a great deal 
on the motorman. A car should always be run slowly and 
cautiously around curves and over crossings, and the power 
should always be shut off completely in going over circuit- 
breakers. 

When the conductor is collecting fares, which he should do 
where there is a straight track, you should run your car so as 
to make a stop as quickly as possible in case the trolley pole 


io6 


leaves the wire. If you pay strict attention to the handling of 
a car, you cannot fail to notice the slight check in the speed of 
the car when the trolley leaves the wire. 

Where there are cross-overs and switches, you should exer¬ 
cise great care, because if the trolley fork becomes entangled 
in the frog, it will either pull off the trolley stand, or possibly 
pull the trolley wire down, thereby causing a serious delay on 
the line. Besides there is the possibility of a trolley stand drop¬ 
ping or the trolley wire falling upon some person. 

When a trolley wire is pulled down, you should not leave 
it without some one in charge, as some driver might drive his 
horses against it. If there is not much of the wire down, you 
might be able to clear it to one side, so that the cars could 
clear, and in that case a good plan would be to wait until your 
follower came, and then you could continue on your trip and 
your follower could work it in the same way that you did, until 
the emergency crew could arrive and take charge of the fallen 
wire. The first thing, however, that should be done would be 
to telephone to your depot informing them of the trouble and 
the exact location. If the wire should fall on the rail, you 
should try and clear it away, and you could do this in safety 
by taking hold of the wire with your cap or coat, or by means of 
a dry stick of wood. This would relieve the power station from 
the ground, besides keeping the cars in operation, and if you 
could find some pieces of wood around, you could lay the wire 
down on them and thus prevent a ground occurring again. 
There has never, been a trolley made which will prevent the 
trolley wheel from leaving the wire if a car is run in a reckless 
manner around curves and over crossings and circuit-breakers. 

You should always bear in mind that a trolley is intended 


to follow the car and not intended to go ahead of same, and 
you are never safe when backing your car without first turning 
the trolley pole. When a pole has been bent by backing up 
without turning it, the superintendent can easily see how it was 
done. 

When a trolley wheel is lost out of the fork, a good plan is 
to place a piece of wire in the axle holes; this has a tendency 
to keep the fork a little farther away from the wire than if you 
ran it without; the nearer the fork is to the wire the more liable 
it is to become caught in a frog or diagonal, or at an anchor ear 
in the line. 


CONTROLLER TROUBLES 

Controller troubles are probably the most frequent of any 
experienced with street railway cars. This is especially so 
with the older types of controllers. A great deal of this trouble 
is caused by careless handling, and in failing to move the power 
handle a full notch at a time, consequently causing arcing at 
fingers and contacts, until finally there is no contact at all or 
the finger and contact are blistered. A finger may get caught 
so that you cannot get beyond a certain position, or it may be 
that you will get no power on some of the positions, or perhaps 
the car will not move at all from one controller. 

An inspection of the controller will probably show that one 
of the fingers has no contact, and a new finger will have to be 
provided. Or in consequence of the continual arcing between 
the finger and contact, there is a possibility of the temper being 
taken out of the tension spring of a finger. 

It does not always follow that the man that has trouble with 
a controller is the one at fault; it may be that the motorman 


io8 


that had it previously caused the trouble; but when a motor- 
man is continually having trouble with his car, it is generally 
safe to say that he is either careless or possibly ignorant of the 
workings of a controller and does not follow the instructions 
as given him when he was first given charge of a car. A great 
saving for the company can be made by the careful operation 
of a controller. It is often noticed that the motorman applies 
the power so rapidly as to cause the wheels to spin around so 
quickly that they have no chance to adhere to the rail. When 
a dry piece of rail is reached, the wheels suddenly grip and then 
the car would leap forward with a sudden movement. In 
damp weather, if the rail is somewhat slippery, they will throw 
the power all the way on, and, if they have sand, they will drop 
it without using good judgment; the car starts forward with a 
jerk which is liable to damage the motors, or particularly the 
gears and pinions, and make it very unpleasant for the pas¬ 
sengers. If you notice a locomotive engineer in starting up 
with a heavy load, or on a heavy grade, or a slippery rail, you 
will see that he opens the valve just a little at a time, but if 
the wheels should commence to slip he will shut off the steam 
and commence to apply it again very gradually, and if he uses 
sand he drops a little at a time, but he does not open the valve 
to its fullest extent and then drop sand, because if he did some¬ 
thing would be liable to give way. 

When you apply the power on the first position and the wheel 
slips, it stands to reason that the more power you apply the 
more the wheels will continue to slip. If you apply the power 
gradually and give time for the wheels to grip the rail before 
moving the power from one notch to another, you will find that 
you will make time in doing so. 


109 


On arriving at a crossing, or any part of a track which is 
covered with sand, dirt, or water, you should let you car run 
over same without using power if possible. 

There are a great many places on some lines where there 
are grades, so that a car can be run quite some distance without 
using power at all, excepting to start the car. 

It is to the company’s interest that you use as little power 
as possible in the operation of your car, and what is of interest 
to your employer is of interest to yourself. In throwing off 
the power, throw it off lively but not with too much force, 
because you may break the rivet which secures the cam wheel 
to the controlling spindle; or, if it is keyed on, it is liable to 
become loose. 

You should never leave a car without first throwing off the 
overhead switch or circuit-breaker, and taking off controller 
handles, as it is possible for a car to start up without the power 
being applied with the handles during rainy weather. This 
is something that very rarely occurs, but it is actually possible 
for such a thing to happen. 

HAND BRAKES 

The hand brake is the oldest type of brake which was used 
for governing and stopping cars. It is operated by hand, 
using either the crank or wheel for manipulation. The crank 
handle is the one generally used by street-car systems. The 
brake leverages of the truck mechanism of brakes is such as to 
conform to the weight and varied conditions of car. 


no 


DEFECTS 

The failure of the brakes is a very serious matter, especially 
if the brake chain or rod parts, or if it becomes detached from 
the brake lever through the bolt’s either breaking or dropping 
out. (The bolt referred to is the bolt that fastens the brake 
rod to the brake lever.) 

If this should happen on a crowded thoroughfare you should 
immediately reverse your car and apply the power, just a little, 
bringing the car to as near a standstill as you can, and then 
signal your conductor to put the rear brake on. When the 
car is entirely stopped, you can arrange with your conductor 
as to what shall be done. 

In an emergency of this kind it would be well to do every¬ 
thing without letting the passengers know that anything out of 
the ordinary had occurred. The safest way would be to have 
your car pushed or towed to car house, and it is always safer 
to have the car towed than it is to have it pushed (as then the 
car being operated would be in front, which is much the safer 
way). This rules applies to all cases when cars are disabled 
and cannot be operated. 

If the cars are on a long headway, and the streets are not 
too crowded, you could, by a prearranged signal, run your car 
home by the conductor operating the rear brake. Of course 
the motorman, in such a case, must stand ready to use the re¬ 
verse and must greatly increase the distance in which to make 
a stop. 

When it becomes necessary to use the reverse, do not put 
on the power too fast. On a controller car the first or second, 
or not more than the third, position would do, and on a car 


Ill 


equipped with a T. H. rheostat the first quarter would be suffi¬ 
cient. 

All the power that it is necessary to apply is just sufficient 
to turn the wheels slowly in a reverse direction to that in which 
the car is moving. Make sure and reverse fully and follow the 
instructions given in regard to putting on the power, because 
if you put on too much power at once it is liable to blow the 
fuse, and then you surely would be in a sad plight. The only 
thing for you to do in case you reverse the car and the fuse 
blows out on account of a brake failure of any description 
would be to throw the controller handle all the way around to 
the “loop” or last parallel position. In case of a broken brake 
chain it would only take a short while to take the brake chain 
from the other end and use in place of the broken one. If 
you ever have occasion to do this, first block the wheels so that 
the car would not move, and with the aid of a small monkey 
wrench you could make the change in a short time. 

In case of a brake rod-bolt breaking or dropping out, you 
could use your bell-pin if it was short enough and did not catch 
on the pilot board when the brake was released; this, of course, 
would depend on the style of the truck under your car. It 
might happen that the brake chains are getting longer each trip 
you make and winding around the brake spindle two or three 
turns, which would result in your failing to stop a car in the 
distance that you ought to, or perhaps not at all. You will 
possibly find that the turn-buckles have slacked off on the 
brake-connecting rod, and you can easily determine this by 
seeing whether the turn-buckle has turned away from the check- 
nuts or not, and if they have, you could turn the turn-buckles 
back up to the check-nuts and operate your car in safety. When 


112 


anything like this occurs you should report the matter as soon 
as possible. Of course, these are things that should very rarely 
occur, but it is well to know how to temporarily repair them, 
so as to complete your trip or day’s work or continue until you 
get to the depot. 

In operating a car you should always know where the brake 
handle will set to stop a car, and to know this you should set 
the handle by ratchet until you get it where it will suit you best 
and then let it stay there, and not let it fly off in releasing the 
brakes. If you do you cannot know where the handle will set 
when you come to make your next stop. Besides this being 
an important point in the handling of your car, it is very dis¬ 
agreeable to passengers to have a motorman continually letting 
fly the brake handle and making a disagreeable noise. This 
is especially noticeable on open cars when passengers are riding 
on the front seat. 

You should not have your brake set any when you have the 
power on, and in going down grade you should allow the car to 
coast as far as possible without using power, keeping the car 
under control all the while, and not running in excess of speed 
allowed and determined by your superintendent. 

You should strive to become a good judge of distance, so 
that you could be able to tell nearly how far the car will run 
after shutting off power. 

You also must take into consideration the grade at a point 
where you wish to stop a car. In no event whatever allow 
yourself to run a car at high rate of speed toward a crossing, 
or endeavor to make a stop suddenly. 

When the rail is in a slippery condition, or during a heavy 
fog, you should run your car very cautiously. 


A brake that has such good leverage and is so evenly ad¬ 
justed as to slide all the wheels without unusual exertion on the 
part of a motorman is certainly a good one, and neither steam, 
electric or air brakes can do any more than this; but a com¬ 
petent motorman will, when he feels the wheels sliding, release 
on the brake, then reapply the brakes to make his stop. 

In regard to the use of sand: some motormen will not use 
one sand-box full during the entire day, while another man 
will fill both boxes on each trip. The one man uses it only 
when absolutely necessary; just a little in starting up on a slip¬ 
pery rail and sometimes a little in stopping, in case a team 
cuts in on the track ahead of him, but for all stops to take on or 
discharge passengers, he does not use sand at all. The other 
man uses sand without any judgment, as though the more sand 
he used the better motorman he was. In starting up, the car 
does not move fast enough for him, because instead of applying 
the power gradually he throws the controller perhaps on the 
last position and the wheels spin around, but the car makes 
but little headway; he then pulls the sand lever and drops a 
lot of sand and away goes the car with a bound and a noise as 
though it was running over cobble stones. Before he recovers 
himself from the sudden start the car gives, he is close to the 
next street crossing, and if he gets a bell to stop, then down goes 
the brake again with all his might, the wheels slide on the 
slippery rail, and then he jumps for the sand lever again and 
drops more sand, by which the car comes to a sudden stop. 
When he starts again the car has a flat wheel. He has done so 
much damage in five seconds that it will necessitate the taking out 
of the wheels and putting in another pair while the first ones are 
having the flat spots ground out of them. This operation takes 


from two to five hours. Besides, there is the enormous ex¬ 
pense of new wheels and the loss while the car is out of service. 

Motormen should strive to be able to tell the difference 
between bad rails and a bad brake, and when either of these 
two conditions exist, all precautions should be taken against 
collisions of any description. 

OPEN CIRCUITS 

An open circuit means that the circuit is either broken or 
parted at some point. When an open circuit occurs on trolley 
wire circuit of car between trolley stand and main motor switch, 
car cannot be operated by either controller on any position. 

When an open circuit occurs, either in the wire leading to 
the fuse box, or wire leading to and connecting with the light¬ 
ning arrester, or wire leading to and connecting with wire in 
cable marked T, the car cannot be moved in either direction 
on any position with controller. 

When the open circuit occurs with the R-i wire, or in panels 
of resistance of this connection, the motors cannot be operated 
on the first position of the controller, but may on the second 
position. To overcome this defect, connect R-i and R-2 
contact wipers in controller together with wire. This will 
allow the motors to be operated on the first position, but the 
motors will acquire the same speed as they would on the 
second position, if there had been no open circuit at all. See 
Diagram No. 22. 

When an open circuit occurs on the R-2 wire, the motors 
can be operated on all series positions, but cannot be operated 
on the first parallel position of controller. When the open 
circuit is located in the panels of resistance, the motors 


TI 5 

cannot be operated until the third position is attained on the 
controller. Also, the motors cannot be operated on the first 





/H 


AuMVst ^c>o\A 




AfHk 



*H 

w 

/H 


/\b* 


\ 






ii 


Fig. 22 











ii 6 


parallel position. To overcome this defect, connect the R-2 
and the R-3 contact wipers in controller together with a piece 
of wire. This will allow the motors to be operated on all posi¬ 
tions with the controller, the motors acquiring the same speed 
on the second position as that of the third. The object of 
forming this connection is so that the motors may be operated 
on each and every position with controller. For making this 
connection, see Diagram No. 23. 

When an open circuit occurs on the R-3 wire and the de¬ 
fect is located between the contact wiper in controller and tap 
on resistance jumper wire, the motors can be operated on all 
positions with the controller. When an open circuit occurs on 
jumper wire between the first rheostat and R-3 tap lead, the 
motors cannot be operated until the third position is attained, 
also, on the seventh as well, the sixth position being cut out. 

To overcome the last-named defect, connect the R-2 and 
R-3 contact wipers in controller together with a piece of wire, 
the same as in Diagram No. 23. When the open circuit occurs 
in the panels of resistance of the R-3 connection, the motors 
cannot be operated until the fourth position is attained; also, 
cannot be operated until the eighth position is attained as well 
on the controller. To overcome this defect, connect R-3 and 
R-4 contact wipers in controller together with a piece of wire; 
this will allow the motors to be operated on all positions with 
controller, the motors acquiring the same speed on the third 
position as on that of the fourth. This applies to the G. E. 
controllers, types K-2, K-10, and K-11. To form this con¬ 
nection see Diagram No. 24. 

When an open circuit occurs on the R-4 wire of type K-2 
controller, the motors cannot be operated except on the fourth, 


i J 7 

fifth, eighth, and ninth positions, respectively. To overcome 
this defect, connect R-3 and R-4 contact wipers in controller 






AA), 

Kh 

v? 

'/ur 

FV 

Ah\ y 





Fig. 23. 











together with a piece of wire; this will allow the motors to be 
operated on all positions with controller, motors acquiring the 


/Qttoyst VaYw fttiarA. 



' /MS 

/ ViT 


> x \\ 











same speed on the third position as on that of the fourth. This 
applies to the G. E. controllers, types K-2, K-io, and K-ii. 
To form this connection see Diagram No. 24. 

When an open circuit occurs on the R-4 wire of type K-10 
or K-ii controller, the motors can be operated on all positions 
with controller; but if open circuit occurs in panels of resist¬ 
ance the motors can be operated only on the fifth and ninth posi¬ 
tions respectively. To overcome this defect, connect R-4 and 
R-5 wipers together in controller with a wire; this will allow 
the motor to be operated on all positions with the controller; 
the motors acquiring the same speed on the fourth position as 
that of the fifth. This applies to the G. E. controller type K-10, 
and K-ii. To form this connection see Diagram No. 25. 

When an open circuit occurs on the R-5 wire of a type K-10 
or K-ii controller, the motors can be operated on the fifth and 
ninth positions only. To overcome this defect connect con¬ 
tact wipers R-4 and R-5 together as in Diagram No. 25. This 
connection closes the circuit with rheostat or resistance and 
allows the motors to be operated on all positions with controller, 
the motors acquiring the same speed on the fourth position as 
that of the fifth. 

When an open circuit occurs on the field lead of motor and 
arc in connection with a G. E. type K-i and K-2 controller, 
with shunt method in connection, the motors cannot be oper¬ 
ated until the fourth position on a K or K-i controller is at¬ 
tained, or until the fifth position is attained on the type K-2 
controller. To locate the defective motor, first cut out the No. 1 
motor and try to operate the car on the first position with con¬ 
troller, but if circuit cannot be formed, cut in the No. 1 motor 
and try by cutting out the No. 2 motor. 


120 


When an open circuit occurs on an armature lead or reverse 
switch connection the motors cannot be operated on any of the 



Fig. 25. 









I 21 


series positions, but motor in circuit can be operated on any 
of the parallel positions. 

When an open circuit is located on No i motor’s armature 
lead or reverse switch connection, the No. 2 motor cannot be 
operated until the first parallel position of the controller is 
attained. When an open circuit is located on No. 2 motor’s 
armature lead or reverse switch connections, the No. 1 motor 
cannot be operated until the arrow indicator of the controlling 
cylinder handle is midway between the series and parallel 
position. 

DEFECTS IN MOTORS 

Under this heading a brief description of the various troubles 
and causes in street railway motors will be explained. 

First. Grounded Armature. — A grounded armature is 
the result of one or more of the armature coils becoming in 
metallic connection with armature core or pole piece. This 
defect causes fuse in circuit to be blown. When the defect is 
located in No. 1 motor’s armature circuit the fuse will be blown 
on the series positions, and when located in No. 2 motor’s 
armature circuit the fuse will be blown on the parallel positions 
with controller, providing both motors are held in circuit by 
their respective cut-out switches. With this defect no repairs 
can be made, except at armature repair room. 

Second. Grounded Commutator. — A grounded com¬ 
mutator is the result of a segment or segments of the same be¬ 
coming in metallic connection with the frame which supports 
it. This defect causes fuse to be blown in circuit, the same as 
that of grounded armature coil. This defect is either caused 
by an accumulation of carbon dust, or grease from the outer 


122 


edge of commutator and extending to shaft of armature, which 
allows a short circuit to take place and causes fuse to be blown 
in circuit. With this defect, no repairs can be made except in 
armature repair room. 

Third. Open-circuited Commutator. —An open-cir¬ 
cuited commutator is caused by an armature coil lead parting 
or burning off near binding terminal of commutator. The 
defect is noticeable by a sharp flash on commutator, when the 



Fig. 26, 

positive brush passes this bar, also the mica insulation between 
commutator bars will be more or less burned by the arcing-of 
brush. This presenting itself next to bar having the open 
circuit. 

Fourth. Grounded Field. — A grounded field is the 
result of the coil of wire composing same to become in metallic 
connection with motor frame at some point or other. This 
defect causes the fuse in the circuit to be blown, providing that 
the longest portion of the field circuit is cut out by this ground. 


123 


When the defect is located in No. i motor’s field circuit the fuse 
will be blown on the series positions, and when located in No. 2 
motor’s field circuit the fuse will be blown on the parallel posi¬ 
tions of controller, providing both motors are held in circuit by 
their respective cut-out switches. 

The ground of a field usually presents itself at the back of 
field coil as secured in motor frame, or on the inner side of 
field coil, next to motor pole piece. No repairs can be made 
with this defect, except at field repair room. 

Fifth. Weak Field. —A weak field is caused by the in¬ 
sulation becoming carbonized, which allows a partial short 
circuit to be effected upon ks own circuit. This defect causes 
fuse to be blown when using the last running position of a con¬ 
trolling device and can be located in either No. 1 or No. 2 motor. 
It is also noticeable by the retarded movement of car when cur¬ 
rent is first applied and on first position of controller, but after¬ 
wards by a sudden speed being reached by the motors. 

Sixth. Grounded Brush-Holder. — A grounded brush- 
holder is the result of the metallic frame composing the same 
becoming in connection with motor frames either by some metal¬ 
lic connection or by carbonization of brush-holder yoke. This 
defect causes fuse in circuit to be blown as follows: When the 
metallic frame is in metallic connection with motor frame and 
located in No. 1 motor the car cannot be operated in either 
direction, causing fuse to be blown on series positions with 
controller. When located in No. 2 motor the car can be moved 
on a series position, the fuse being blown on the parallel posi¬ 
tions of the controller. 

When the grounded brush-holder is caused by carboniza¬ 
tion the fuse will be blown when using the last position of con- 


124 


troller and can be located in either No. i or No. 2 motor. To 
determine which motor carries this defect, first cut out No. 1 
motor, testing the circuit of No. 2 motor on series position with 
controller. If no fuse is blown with this test, the ground will 
be located in No. 1 motor as cut out, but if fuse is blown, cut 
in the No. 1 motor and cut out No. 2, which will allow a test 
to be made with No. 1 motor’s circuit. 

When the wires F-i and F-2 at the shunt connection be¬ 
come short-circuited with each other, and both motors are 
cut in with their respective switches, a car cannot be moved 
in either direction. 


MAIN MOTOR SWITCH 

A main motor switch is an electrical device placed in cir¬ 
cuit of trolley wire, in car wiring, for the purpose of opening or 


Fig. 27.— W. H., M. M. Switches. 

closing that circuit at either end of car. Several other names 
are given to it, namely overhead switch , canopy switch , and 





!25 


sometimes auxiliary switch. The switches are constructed 
with a blow-out magnet coil placed in circuit with switch lever 
for the purpose of breaking an arc when opening the circuit. 
The magnet coils are inserted in interior of switch. 


FUSE BOXES 


A fuse box in an electrical device placed in the trolley cir¬ 
cuit of car wiring for the purpose of opening a circuit (by the 
blowing of fuse) when an overload of current is applied, thereby 
protecting the electrical equipment 
of car. This device is usually con¬ 
structed in the form of a box, in 
which are inserted two binding- 
posts, representing positive and 
negative poles of the device. To 
these are attached two wires, — 
one the trolley wire, which is at¬ 
tached to the positive binding-post 
of the fuse box, and the other wire, 
attached to the negative binding- 
post, is the wire leading to and connecting with through light¬ 
ning arrester to trolley contact wiper in controller. The fuse 
box is usually equipped with a blow-out magnet coil (which is 
in connection with the positive binding-post of device), the 
office of which is to extinguish the arc when fuse is blown. 



Fig. 28. — Fuse Block for Rail¬ 
way Equipments. Single 
Pole. Style No. 3794. 
Open. 


LIGHTNING ARRESTER 

The lightning arrester is a device placed 011 the trolley wire 
circuit of car, between the fuse box and the controller connec¬ 
tions. It is for the purpose of grounding an excessive charge 






Fig 29. 


which might occur on the line, resulting fiom lightning. This 
device is usually placed in the trolley circuit, between the fuse 

box and trolley contact wiper in 
controller or rheostat spindle in 
T. H. system. 

The more modern types of 
lightning arresters are connected 
directly across the entire circuit. 
That is, a wire is attached to 
trolley wire of car, and connects 
with the pole of arrester. A second 
wire is connected from the nega¬ 
tive side of arrester to main ground 
wire. An open circuit exists be¬ 
tween the positive and negative side 
of lightning arrester circuit. 



Fig. 30. — Type MP Lightning 
Arrester for Railway Service. 















127 


When a short circuit occurs, there are no repairs which can 
be made, except to cut out the arrester; this is accomplished 
by disconnecting the wire on the positive side of circuit. 

When an open circuit presents itself in a lightning arrester 
of the more modern types, it will not be noticeable to the per¬ 
son operating the car. 

The office of the lightning arrester is to protect the car 
equipment from excessive currents, caused by lightning dis¬ 
charges. 

THE CAR MAGNETIC CIRCUIT-BREAKER 

A magnetic circuit-breaker is an electrical device which 
works automatically on its own circuit when a certain amount 
of current is reached. 

It is constructed for 
the specific purpose 
of opening the circuit 
when an overload of 
current occurs, thereby 
protecting the electri¬ 
cal equipment of a car. 

When a car is equipped 
with this device it ob¬ 
viates the use of a fuse 
box in the particular 
circuit in which it is. 

The circuit-breaker is 
only in circuit with 
controller on one end 
of the car, a separate 





128 



one being placed at the other end. When operating car 
at the opposite end the circuit-breaker last used should be 

tripped to open the circuit. 
The circuit-breaker usually 
consists of two binding- 
posts, to which are at¬ 
tached the positive and 
negative wires, and in the 
circuit is placed a blow¬ 
out magnet coil, the func¬ 
tion of which is to attract 
what is known as the 
armature, and releasing 
the trip which secures the 

contact lever. The cause 
Fig. 32.—W.H. Automatic Circuit-breaker Qf armature being at _ 

for Railway Equipments. . 

tracted is the occurrence 
of an overload of current, which is excessive; this increases 
the magnetic field so that the armature is attracted by the pole 
piece of coil, which results in opening the circuit. 


LAMP CIRCUIT 

The lamp circuit used in cars is what is known as a series 
circuit, with usually 5 lamps in the series, and the number 
of circuits in a car may be one or more, but usually does not 
exceed three. This refers to a 500-volt circuit, equipped with 
110-volt lamps, but when 75-volt lamps are used, 7 constitute 
a circuit. One of the circuits is in connection with the head¬ 
light of car, in which there are 6 lamps, but only 5 are placed 






129 


in service by means of a two-way switch. The entire number 
of circuits are controlled by one main switch. 



H.l.=Head Light Kl=3 Way Switch 

P.L.=Platform Light K 2 =Main Switch 

S.L.= Sign Light F=Fuse unless in Switch 


Fig. 33. — Lamp-circuit Diagram. 


MAIN LAMP SWITCH 

The main switch for lamp circuits is 
termed a two-pole switch; the contacts 
are mounted upon a porcelain base, hav¬ 
ing a porcelain cap. The button for 
operating the contact lever of switch is 
vulcanized rubber. The switch is placed 
in advance of lamps in circuit; this al¬ 
lows the circuit to be opened when mak¬ 
ing repairs on lamp sockets and cluster Fig. 34.—Switch for 

circuits. The fuse of circuit is usually Circuits . Snap 
placed within the main switch case. Switch. 



TWO-WAY LAMP SWITCHES 

A two-way switch is called a four-pole switch; it is placed 
in circuit usually at the ground end of a three or foui lamp cii- 
cuit, allowing circuit to be completed with the fourth or fifth 
lamp. They are in circuit with the headlight lamp, which 































1 3 ° 


allows them to be cut out and cut in alternately. There is 
no fuse in connection with this switch, except the one located 
in the main switch itself. 

OPEN CIRCUITS 

An open circuit on lamp switch may be caused in many ways, 
namely, points of non-contact in circuit wiling, points of non- 
contact in main lamp switch, points of non-contact in lamp 
sockets, or by a broken carbon filament in lamp. When this 
defect presents itself, the lamps in that circuit cannot be burned. 

GROUNDED LAMP CIRCUITS 

A grounded lamp circuit is caused by wiring or lamp sockets 
having a metallic circuit with the negative circuit of car. When 
this defect presents itself, a part of the lamps in circuit are cut 
out, and where a larger portion of lamp circuits are affected, 
the carbon filaments in the remaining lamps will burn out, be¬ 
cause they carry too much current. 

SHORT CIRCUIT 

A short circuit refers more particularly to the sockets of 
lamp clusters; this is caused by the positive and negative side 
of lamp socket becoming grounded together. This defect cuts 
out the individual lamp in the socket, upon which the short 
circuit is located. 


A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE CONDUIT STREET 

RAILWAY SYSTEM 


The conduit electiic railway system differs somewhat from 
the overhead trolley system. The conductors of the conduit 
system are composed of angle-iron bars supported by insulators. 
One bar is known as the positive bar, while the other is known 
as the negative bar. These bars are also called contact bars, 
or channel rails, and are placed about six inches apart and 
below the surface of the street. The current is conducted to 
the motors by means of a conduit plow, upon which is mounted 
the two sliding contact plates, one on each side of the plow; 
one acting as positive conductor and the other as negative con¬ 
ductor. The rails of this particular system are not bonded or 
connected, as on the overhead trolley system, as the circuit is 
completed by the negative return bar. The placing of feeders 
in connection with the system is similar to that of the overhead 
trolley system. 


MOTORS 

.With this system, all classes of street railway motors are 
used; their installation being the same as that of all overhead 
systems. 


CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 

There are two circuit-breakers in circuit for a conduit 
system; one is in circuit with wire T-i, which is trolley, the 
other with wire T-2, which is the return or negative wire of 
circuit. 


x 3 2 


CONDUIT PLOW 

A conduit plow is a device having conductors for the car 
circuit, placed within two sheets of metal and thoroughly insu¬ 
lated from the shank of plow. To the end of these conductors 
are attached the sliding (F) contact plates, which are mounted 
on a sliding contact plate spring. At the opposite end of con¬ 
ductors are attached leads having teiminals which connect 
with body terminals of car circuit wiring. The plow is sus¬ 
pended on a yoke secured by two bolts. The extreme end of 
yoke rests upon two sleeves which slide on two parallel bars 
called plow bars, which are suspended in truck frame, at right 
angles to same. 

SERIES OF QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS RELATIVE TO 
THE OPERATION OF CARS OF THE CONDUIT 
SYSTEM 

Q. If a controller was out of order and could not be turned 
off, how would you open the circuit to stop the car? 

A. Turn off hood or canopy switch. 

Q. What should be done before attempting any repairs? 

A. Turn off both ground and automatic switches. 

Q. If lights fail to light, what would you examine? 

A. Automatic or ground switches. If switches are set right 
examine plow leads. If they should be disconnected and drag¬ 
ging on the ground , connect them at once. 

Q. If automatic switches or fuses blow two or three times 
in succession, what should be done? 

A. Locate and cut out the defective motor. 



LEAD 


PLOW BAR 


PLOW BAR 



CONTACT 

SHOE 



POWER RAIL 



■v 






























































































































































I 33 


Q. If the plow is grounded or commences to burn, what 
should be done? 

A. The car should be kept moving, but not with its own 
power if possible to avoid it. A car with the plow in this con¬ 
dition should have the automatic or ground switches turned off 
and be conveyed to a break in the underground conductor or a 
plow hatch , where the plow should be removed. 

Q. If a car with a burning or grounded plow is left stand¬ 
ing on the rail, what would be the result? 

A. The under ground conductor would be burned and destroyed. 

Note. — In case a car becomes disabled and it appears that the plow 
springs or shoes are torn off, the motorman must warn his follower to run 
carefully over the place where he believes the damage occurred. If two cars 
lose power in succession, the motorman on the following car must be warned 
not to proceed until the underground conductors have been examined and 
put in order. 

Q. If any of the circuit-breaking devices on the car were 
grounded or loose connections commenced to burn, what 
should be done? 

A. Turn off automatic or ground switches. If the switches 
were burning and could not be turned off disconnect the plow 
leads. 

Q. How can you distinguish No. i from No. 2 controller? 

A. By a short jumper wire in No. 1 controller connecting 
cables known as E- 2-X and T-2. 

Q. Which end of the double-truck car is the short end? 

A. The end that the plow is on or the end that the register 


is on. 


J 34 


POWER OFF AT BREAKS 

At points where there is a break in the underground conduc¬ 
tor as indicated by marks on the surface of the streets, power 
must be turned off when the front end of single-truck or short 
end of double-truck cars reach long mark. Power may be 
turned on at short marks. If on the long end of a double- 
truck car, power may be held six feet beyond long mark, and 
must not be turned on until the front end of car passes six feet 
beyond short mark. When the power is turned off at the 
long mark, the circuit is opened in the controller and the blow¬ 
out magnet can control and break the arc; but if the power is 
held on when passing over a break, the circuit is open at the 
underground conductor, where there is no blow-out magnet to 
break the arc, and the heat caused by the arc is so intense that 
the plow fuse is burned, plow springs weakened, and sometimes 
the plow set afire, which would in most cases ground the section. 

* Q. Name the principal parts of type “K” series parallel controller. 

A. Controller cap. Controlling cylinder. Water cap and pointer. 
Star wheel. Check pawl and spring for controlling cylinder. Controlling 
fingers. Finger board. Contact segments. Safety stop. Interlocking de¬ 
vice. Blow-out magnet. Pole piece. Hinge pole piece. Arc deflectors. 
Reversing cylinder. Water cap. Star or index wheel. Check pawl and 
spring. Reversing fingers. Finger board. Short and long contact seg¬ 
ments. Connection board. No. i and No. 2 motor cut-out switches. 

Note. — The pointer, star wheel, check pawl, and spring form the con¬ 
trolling index. 

Q. Into how many parts is the controlling cylinder divided? 

A. Two parts. The upper part cuts the resistance in and out of the 
circuit. The lower changes the motors from series to parallel. 

*From N. Y. City Railway Co. Handbook. 


135 


Q. Of what use is the blow-out magnet? 

A. To break the arc formed between controlling fingers and contact 
segments. 

Note. — The arc is forced across the magnetic field formed between the 
pole-pieces of the blow-out magnet and in this way the arc is drawn out, weak¬ 
ened, and disappears in the form of gas. (Blown out.) 

Q. What part of the controller forms the poles of the blow-out 
magnet? 

A. The heavy casting which forms the back of the controller casing and 
the hinged pole-piece. 

Q. Of what use are the arc deflectors? 

A. To direct and confine the arc to a certain space. 

Q. What is the interlocking device for? 

A. To compel the motorman to turn off the power before reversing, and 
to lock the controlling cylinder when not in use. 

Q. What is the safety stop for? 

A. To prevent the controlling cylinder being turned past the first running 
position when a motor is cut out. 

Q. What controls the direction of motion of the motors? 

A. The reversing cylinder. 

Q. Name the controlling fingers or contacts “K” 8 and 9 controller. 

A. T 1, R 1, R 2, R 3, R 4, K 5, 19, 15, E 1 {series connection), E 1 
{parallel connection), T 2. 

Q. Name the reversing cylinder contacts. 

A. 19, A 1, A A 1, F 1, 15, A 2, A A 2, F 2. 

Note. — K 27 controller has two extra fingers for controlling cylinder, 
E 2 for series and E 2 for parallel connections. 

Q. What would prevent the controlling cylinder being advanced 
from the off to the succeeding positions? 

A. The interlocking device , a bent finger or loose-contact segment , will 
prevent the cylinder being turned to first, second, third, fourth, or first run- 


i3 6 


ning position. The safety stop prevents the cylinder being turned past the 
first running position. Bent fingers or loose contact segments will prevent 
cylinder being advanced to any of the succeeding positions. 

Q. If controlling cylinder could not be turned to the off position, 
how could you open the circuit and stop the car? 

A. Turn off hood or canopy switch on either end of the car and apply 
brake. 

Q. How can you distinguish No. i motor from No. 2? 

A. Cars equipped with K 8 and 9 controllers have a short jumper in 
No. 1 between E 2 and T 2 terminal. No. 1 motor is on the same end. 
K 2*1 controller main light switch is on No. 2 end. 

Q. Describe the changes effected in resistance and motor connec¬ 
tions when advancing the controlling cylinder of K 8 or 9 controllers. 

A. 15/ point: Motors in series and in series with resistance 1. 

2 d point: Motors in series and in series with resistance 2. 

3d point: Motors in series and in series with resistance 3. 

4th point: Motors in series and in series with resistance 4. 

(jst running position.) 3th point: Motors in series, all resistance 
cut out. 

6th point: Motors in parallel and in series with resistance 2. 

fih point: Motors in parallel and in series with resistance 3. 

8 th point: Motors in parallel and in series with resistance 4. 

(2d running position.) gth point: Motors in parallel, all resistance 
cut out. 

Q. Describe the changes effected by advancing the cylinder of a 
K 27 controller. 

A. 1st paint: Motors in series and in series with resistance 1. 

2d point: Motors in series and in series with resistance 2. 

3d point: Motors in series and in series with resistance 3. 

{1st running position.) 4th point: Motors in series, all resistance 
cut out. 

5 th point: Motors in parallel and in series with resistance 2. 


T 3 7 


6 th point: Motors in parallel and in series with resistance 3. 

7 th point: Motors in parallel and in series with resistance 4. 

(2 d running position .) 8 th point: Motors in parallel , all resistance 
cut out. 

Note. — When starting, take particular notice whether the motors take 
their proper speed on all positions of the controlling cylinder, and if not, notify 
the proper authorities. 

Q. Which motor is cut out of circuit when changing from series 
to parallel? 

A. Motor No. 2. 

Q. Why are the motors connected in series? 

A. To reduce the strength of the current. 

Q. Why are the motors put in parallel or multiple? 

A. To increase the strength of the current and the speed of the 
motors. 

Q. What is the starting resistance for? 

A. A device placed in the motor circuit to reduce the amount of current 
when starting motors. 

Note. — When the controlling cylinder is advanced to the first point, all 
starting resistance is cut in circuit, and as the motors gain speed, the resistance 
is cut out gradually by advancing the cylinder one point at a time. 

Q. How are the motors protected when the starting resistance is 
cut out? 

A. By their counter-electro-motive force. 

Q. If the resistance is cut out too fast when starting, how would 
it affect the motors? 

A. The motors would be overheated, the insulation would burn or bake; 
also cause arcing at commutators. 

Note. — When a motorman cuts out the resistance too fast or uses power 
on down grades he abuses his motors and they become overheated. 


i3» 


Q. If controlling cylinder is allowed to rest on resistance points a 
longer time than is necessary to start the motors, what effect would 
it have on the resistance? 

A. The resistance would be overheated. 

Note. — If resistance is overheated, circuit-breakers must be turned off 
and car be conveyed to Depot. (See instructions relating to fire.) 

Q. If controlling cylinder is turned off slowly, what would be the 
result? 

A. A heavy arc would be formed between the controlling fingers and 
contact segments. 

Note. — Never turn controlling cylinder from a higher to a lower point. 

Q. If a car is at rest and the controlling cylinder is turned to the 
first point and immediately turned off before the motors have attained 
any speed, what injury is done? 

A. Contact segments and fingers would be blistered and set finger board 
afire, as the resistance in circuit without the counter-electro-motive force of 
the motors would be so small that a very large current would be flowing, 
causing an arc too intense for the blow-out magnet to break instantly. 

Q. Why is it necessary for the motors to attain about half speed 
before turning the controlling cylinder from series to parallel connec¬ 
tions? 

A. By allowing the motors to run at half speed or faster, they generate 
a strong counter-electro-motive force, which assists the resistance in protect¬ 
ing the motors against the action of a large current while changing from 
series to parallel. 

Q. Why is it necessary to move the controlling cylinder quickly 
while changing from series to parallel? 

A. To prevent overloading No. i Motor while the change is being made. 

Q. If the controlling cylinder is advanced to the first running posi¬ 
tion and the motors fail to start, how would you locate the open circuit? 

A. Cut in the lights. Ij the lamps light, examine canopy switches and 
fuses; if switches and fuses are all right, cut out the motors in succession in 


T 39 


order to locate the defective one. If the lamps fail to light , examine auto¬ 
matic or ground switches; if switches are on, examine plow leads. 

Note. —When a motor is cut out, the car must be coupled to another 
car and conveyed to the Depot, the motorman on the disabled car assisting on 
heavy grades with the motor in service. 

The objection to operating a car with one motor is, when starting, a large 
current is flowing at double the pressure required for each motor when starting 
in series. 

Q. If the motors fail to start in series, why are you not allowed to 
advance controlling cylinder to parallel connections? 

A. If one or both motors were cut in circuit on the parallel connections 
there would not be enough resistance in circuit to protect them against the 
action of a large current when starting. 

Q. What must be done before leaving the platform of a car? 

A. Lock the controlling cylinder and take off both handles. 

Q. What must be done before attempting any repairs? 

A. Turn off both automatic or ground switches. 

Note. —The automatic switch is a magnetic blow-out circuit-breaker, 
placed in the motor circuit to protect the electrical equipment by opening 
the circuit when the current, through abuse or other causes, becomes too 
large. 

Q. What is a fuse? 

A. A safety device designed to break the motor circuit when an excessive 
current is flowing. It breaks the circuit when heated to a temperature at 
which it melts. 

Note. — The fuse is a protection against fire because it melts at such a 
low temperature that it is impossible for the circuit to get heated to a point 
that will set fire to inflammable material. 

Q. Name the principal parts of an electric motor. 

A. Magnet frame. Pole-pieces. Field coils. Field leads. Axle 
jumper. Armature. Armature coils. Armature core. Armature leads. 
Armature shaft. Armature pinion. Brush yoke. Brush-holders. Brushes. 


140 


Q. What is a field magnet? 

A. That part of an electric motor which develops the magnetic field. 

Q. What is an armature? 

A. That part of an electric motor which is revolved between pole-pieces 
of the field magnets. 

Q. What is an armature pinion? 

A. A toothed wheel placed on the armature shaft of a street car motor 
for engaging the teeth of the reduction gear. 

Q. What is a commutator? 

A. A device for conducting currents of electricity to and from the arma¬ 
ture coils. 

Q. What is a brush? 

A. A piece of carbon which forms a sliding contact on the segments of 
the commutator. 

Q. What is an armature lead? 

A. A wire connected to the brush-holder. 

Q. What is a field lead? 

A. A wire connected to the field coils. 

Q. Name the four leads connected to No. i motor. 

A. A i, A A i, F i, E i. 

Q. Name the four leads connected to No. 2 motor. 

A. A 2, A A 2, F 2, E 2. 

Q. If any of the circuit-breaking devices or electrical connections 
are burning, what must be done? 

A. Turn off automatic or ground switches and disconnect plow leads, 
then push or trail car to Depot. 

Note. — When any part of the electrical equipment of a car is afire, or 
if there is any sign of fire, such as smoke, the odor of burnt rubber or charred 
wood, the automatic switches must be turned off and plow leads disconnected, 
then have the car pushed or trailed to Depot. Switches must not be reset or 
plow leads connected while car is on the road. 


Q. What must be done if automatic switches blow twice in suc¬ 
cession? 

A. See that automatic switches are turned off and have car conveyed 
to Depot. 

Q. If a grounded No. 2 motor was in motion, how could it be stopped? 

A. Reverse, stopping the momentum of car with the brake , then cut No. 2 
motor out, or turn off automatic switches and have car conveyed to Depot. 

Q. What is meant by bucking motor? 

A. A motor acting in opposition through some defect. The motor must 
be located and cut out of circuit, or turn off automatic switches and have car 
conveyed to Depot. 

Note. — Motormen must familiarize themselves with the action or sounds 
made by the car when starting and running; if anything unusual is noticed, 
they should endeavor to locate and remedy the cause. 

Q. If necessary to stop by reversing, to what position must the 
controlling cylinder be turned? 

A. To the first position , as all resistance is in circuit to cut down the 
current. 

Q. If, when reversing, the circuit is opened, what would you do 
to stop the car? 

A. Put the motors in parallel. 

Q. If descending a grade with the brakes out of order and cut off 
from the line, how could you stop the car? 

A. Turn off the canopy switch , reverse and put the motors in parallel. 

The motors then act as generators , driven by the momentum of the car , 
which is not force enough to turn the armature against the induced action 
of the fields. 

Note. — To stop a car equipped with four motors, simply reverse. 

Q. When cut off from the line how would you stop if the car is 
moving backward on a grade and you found it impossible to stop with 
the brake? 


142 


A. Turn off canopy switch and advance controlling cylinder to parallel 
connections. 

Q. How can a car be stopped when descending a grade with a 
motor cut out, brakes out of order, and cut off from the line? 

A. Turn off canopy switch, cut in the defective motor, reverse, turn the 
controlling cylinder to parallel connections, then cut the defective motor out. 
The motor in service will stop the car. 

Q. How can a car be stopped when moving backward on a grade 
with a motor cut out, brakes out of order, and cut off from the 
line? 

A. Turn off canopy switch, cut in the defective motor, advance control¬ 
ling cylinder to parallel connections, then cut the defective motor out. The 
motor in service will stop the car. 

Note. — Except to prevent injury to life or property, emergency stops 
must not be made. 

Q. How are series-wound street railway motors made to act as 
generators? 

A. Reverse the armature connections or change the direction of rotation 
of the armature. 

Q. If the lamps fail to light when the main light switch is closed, 
what is usually the cause? 

A. The light fuse which is located on the inside of the cover of main 
light switch is probably blown. 

Q. How can you locate a defective lamp? 

A. Usually the glass will be discolored; if not, tap the lamps lightly, 
which will cause the broken parts of the filament to come in contact and arc. 

Q. How is the current of electricity conducted from underground 
conductors to the motors? 

A. By a device known as the plow, fitted with two springs which press 
sliding contacts or shoes against the underground conductors. Flexible fuse 
wire connects sliding contacts to wires enclosed in the plates which form the 
body of the plow. These wires or leads are connected to wires T i and T 2. 


143 


Q. When the plow is grounded, what should be done? 

A. Turn off ground or automatic switches, and convey the car to a plow 
hatch, where plow can be removed. 

Note. — If plow springs are broken, turn off automatic switches and 
have the car conveyed to the Depot. (Remove the plow at a hatch if necessary.) 

Q. What indicates the break in the underground conductor? 

A. A long white mark on the surface of the street, running from tram 
rail to tram rail. 

Q . What mark is used to show that the break has been passed? 

A. A short white mark running from slot rail to tram rail of the left side. 

Q. Why is it necessary to turn off power at the marks which indi¬ 
cate the break in the underground conductors? 

A. To open the circuit in the controller so that the arc will be formed 
between the contacts and instantly blown out by the blow-out magnet. 

Q. What is usually the result if power is not turned off at the 
marks which indicate the break in the underground conductors? 

A. The circuit will be open in the conduit between plow shoes and 
underground conductors. The heat caused by the arc weakens the plow 
springs, burns off plow fuses and sets plow-board afire. 

ELECTRICAL TERMS 

Arc. — An electric current flowing across the air gap or space between 
the points of contact. 

Closed Circuit. — A circuit is closed when its conducting parts are 
so connected as to allow the current to flow. 

Open Circuit. — A circuit is open when its conducting parts are dis¬ 
connected in such a manner as to prevent the current from flowing. 

Ground Circuit. — A circuit in which the ground forms part of the 
conducting path. 

Short Circuit. — A short cut made by the current to a path outside 
of the regular circuit. 

Cut Off from the Line. — Open circuit. Car disabled by an open 
circuit. 


144 


Electro-Motive Force. — The pressure that causes an electric current 
to flow. 

Counter-Electro-Motive Force. — The pressure generated in the arma¬ 
ture, causing a current of electricity to flow in opposition to the current 
supplied to run the motor. 

Insulation. — Material used to confine currents of electricity to cer¬ 
tain channels. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


D. C. . . 

. Direct Current. 

A. C. 

. Alternating Current. 

E. M. F. . 

Electro-Motive Force. 

C. E. M. F. 

. Counter-Electro-Motive Force. 

R. . . . 

Resistance. 

+ ... 

Positive. 

— ... 

. Negative. 

A. + . . . 

. Positive Armature Lead. 

A. A. - . . 

. Negative Armature Lead. 

F. + . . . 

. Positive Field Lead. 

E. - . . . 

. Negative Field Lead. 

T. i + . . 

. Positive Main Wire. 

T.2 - . . 

. Negative Main Wire. 


DONT’S 

Don’t cut the resistance out too fast. 

Don’t turn controlling cylinder from a higher to a lower point. 

Don’t turn controlling cylinder to first point and off when it is possible 
to avoid it. 

Don’t run the car if motors fail to start when controlling cylinder is 
turned to first and second points. 

Don’t fail to have your motors running at half speed when changing 
from series to parallel. 

Don’t ascend grades with motors in series. 








I 45 


Don’t use power on down grades. 

Don’t wait until fire drives you from the platform; act when you notice 
any indication of fire, such as smoke, the odor of burnt rubber or wood. 

Don’t fail to turn off automatic switches and disconnect plow leads 
when fire is first noticed. 

Don’t use water to extinguish the fire when plow leads are connected. 

Don’t use water at any time if the fire can be extinguished in any 
other manner. 

Don’t tell passengers that the car is afire. Say car is disabled. 

Don’t fail to see that both automatic switches are turned off after they 
blow the second time. 

Don’t attempt any repairs before turning off both automatic switches. 

Don’t fail to reset automatic switches when through with repairs. 

Don’t experiment with the car. 

Don’t leave the platform without taking both controlling handles 
with you. 

“NOARK” FUSE 

This contrivance is manufactured by the H. W. Johns- 
Manville Company of New York. Some of the largest roads 
in the country are now using this style of fuse box. 

The slate block, to which is attached the two binding-posts, 
is firmly fixed and protected in a solid well-japanned cast-iron 
box as shown in the illustration. This box has a hinged cover 
and spring-snap catch, which allows the cover to swing back 
and makes the inside of the box easy to get at, and the inser¬ 
tion of a fuse but a moment’s work. 

The “Noark” fuse is a vast improvement over the old-time 
ordinary bare wire or lead fuse for several reasons, chief among 
which are the following: They do not rupture with a loud 
report and a heavy flash which is so liable to frighten the 


146 


passengers, causing them to jump off of the car while it is in 
motion, often resulting in a damage suit against the company; 
they do not frighten horses which might be near the car, and 
cause runaways; they do not blister the varnish and paint and 
blacken up the sides of the car. This is a decidedly bad fea¬ 
ture with the uncovered fuse, as sometimes before a car has 
been in service a week, after having been repainted and re¬ 
varnished, it is all blackened and charred up by the blowing 
of old-style fuses. 

A splendid advantage with the “Noark” (see cut) fuse is 
that there are no thumbscrews to remove to replace a fuse. 



The fuse is simply snapped into connection with the slip con¬ 
tacts on the block which connect with the contacts at the end 
of the tube. All motormen who have had experience in re¬ 
placing the old-time fuse know how very difficult it is to insert 
a fuse properly in cold weather, when the fingers are benumbed 
with cold; and oftentimes the fuse is not properly inserted on 
this account, and before the car has gone any distance the fuse 
has blown again, which necessitates the insertion of another 
fuse. 

The “Noark” fuse has a fusible conductor enclosed by a 
tube, and a peculiar filling, known only to the manufacturers, 
entirely surrounding the conductor. Any arc or flash under 






T 47 


short circuit, or from any other cause whatever, is entirely done 
away with by virtue of the enclosing casing and peculiar action 
of the surrounding filling. Owing to the arrangement of the 



Fig. 36 — Cut showing “ Noark ” Fuse Box, with the Fuse Inserted, 

and Cover Thrown Back. 


surrounding material the blowing time interval at any period 
during the life of the fuse remains practically constant, and 
simply varies in an inverse ratio to the amount of excess currem 
above its rated capacity. 

A blown fuse should be preserved by the motorman and 
turned in to the proper person, as these blown fuses are re¬ 
turned to the manufacturers to be refilled and returned to the 
railroad company at a very much less cost than that of a new 
fuse, and it is therefore to the advantage of the railroad com¬ 
pany that all blown fuse be preserved and turned in as sug¬ 
gested. 

Motormen should also be careful about the insertion of a 






















148 


“Noark” fuse, pushing the fuse well home into the clip con¬ 
tact, in order that they may get the full benefit of the carrying 
capacity of the contact clips. 

The last feature we would point out is that of the indicator. 
When a fuse is blown the indicator on the outside of the tube 
makes the fact known to the motorman. A high-resistance 
shunt in circuit with the main fuse is used which blows simul¬ 
taneously with the fuse and leaves a small blackened mark on 
the outside of the tube as an indication of the blowing. 

POWER BRAKES 

At the present time in electric railway practice, with the use 
of methods and equipments which are approaching steam rail¬ 
way standards, the application of power brakes is becoming 
quite general. The primary cause of the introduction of power 
brakes was for the comparative degree of safety in operation 
of cars of greater weight. When cars are equipped with power 
brakes a much higher speed can be attained with practical 
safety. There are two classes of power brakes operated by 
air, namely: 

(a) Straight Air Brakes. 

(b) Automatic Air Brakes. 

Where one or two cars constitute a train, straight air is 
generally used, but where several cars constitute a train, auto¬ 
matic air brakes are used. 


149 


STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 

A Straight Air Brake equipment for Electric Traction con¬ 
sists of the following parts: 

A Motor Compressor. 

Pump Governor. 

Reservoir. 

Brake Cylinder. 

2 Brake Valves or Rotary Valves. 

2 Air Gauges (Duplex usually). 

Cut-out Cocks. 

Drain Cocks, also necessary piping for making proper con¬ 
nections. 


AIR COMPRESSOR 

An air compressor supplies the compressed air. It consists 
of two plungers, operated by a crank-shaft, the action being 
similar to that of a suction 
pump. While the air is 
drawn in by one of the plun¬ 
gers, the opposite plunger 
compresses the air into a 
chamber which is in connec¬ 
tion, through a system of 
piping, with the reservoir, 
which is the storage cham¬ 
ber. The compressor is 
driven by a motor. The pinion of the armature inter¬ 
meshes with the driving gear, which is secured to the crank¬ 
shaft. 



PUMP GOVERNOR 


A pump governor is in connection with the reservoir pres¬ 
sure; it also having a metallic connection with the motor cir¬ 
cuit for operation which is automatic. 

ACTION OF PUMP GOVERNOR 

When a certain predetermined maximum pressure is reached 
in the reservoir, a pneumatic valve contained in the governor 
operates so as to open the motor circuit. When the reservoir 
pressure has been reduced to a certain predetermined mini¬ 
mum amount, the governor closes the circuit of the motor, al¬ 
lowing the compressor to operate until the maximum pressure 
has been attained, when the governor again operates as pre¬ 
viously mentioned, stopping the compressor until another 
reduction in pressure has occurred. 

BRAKE CYLINDER 

A brake cylinder consists of a cylindrical vessel containing 
a piston and rod which is attached to a suitable system of levers 
and rods of the brake mechanism. On the push-rod side of 
the piston is a spiral spring for returning the piston to its nor¬ 
mal position when the brakes are released. 

BRAKE VALVES 

The brake valve is a device interposed between the reser¬ 
voir and brake cylinder by means of which (i) air is allowed 
to flow from the reservoir to brake cylinder for applying the 


brakes; (2) the pressure in brake cylinder is allowed to flow 
to atmosphere for brake release. 

AIR GAUGE 

The air gauge is a device for registering the pressure of 
main reservoir or brake cylinder. This device is usually tapped 
to the pipe on the side of reservoir, from which the air is taken 
for service. 


CUT-OUT COCKS 

The cut-out cocks are so situated in the system to cut out 
either the reservoir or brake cylinder. 

DRAIN COCKS 

A drain cock is inserted in the reservoir for the purpose 
of draining water from the same. 


BRAKE APPLICATION 

When an application of brakes is made the air flows from 
the reservoir through brake valve to brake cylinder, pressing 
the piston and rod forward, which is attached to levers of the 
brake apparatus, causing the brake shoes to be brought in 
contact with the wheels of truck, retarding their momentum. 

RESERVOIR 

An air reservoir is a chamber for the purpose of storing air 
for use in the brake system. It consists of a cylindrical cham¬ 
ber composed of galvanized iron to withstand a certain number 
of pounds pressure. 


J 5 2 


OPERATION OF STRAIGHT AIR BRAKES 

In charging the system, see that all drain cocks are closed, 
also that brake valves are in a release position with the valve 
to be operated; the opposite valve to be on lap position. Start 
compressor by closing a snap switch of compressor motor which 
is usually in the trolley circuit. After the maximum pressure 
has been obtained, the motor circuit is opened automatically 
by the governor. 


SERVICE APPLICATION 

When making an application of air for braking, move the 
brake-valve handle to service position, which allows the air 
to flow from the reservoir to brake cylinder. 

EMERGENCY APPLICATION 

An emergency application is obtained by moving brake- 
valve handle to the extreme right, which allows an increased 
volume of air to flow from reservoir to brake cylinder, minimiz¬ 
ing the amount of time required for a full application, and 
stop. 


RELEASE 

The release of brakes is obtained by moving brake-valve 
handle to the extreme left, which allows the pressure of air to 
flow out of brake cylinder to atmosphere. 


*53 



~r- 





TO TROLLEY 


SWITCH 


SWITCH 


BRAKE VALVE 


BFfyAKE VALVE 


GOVERNOR PIPE 


CUT-OUT COCK 


FUSE 

BLOCK 


AIR STRAINER 


RESERVOIR 


INSULATING, 
JOINT i 


DRAIN COCK 


: : PUMP 
GOVERNOR 


DISCHARGE PIPE 


COMPRESSOR 


FLEXIBLE CONNECTION 


BRAKE CYLINDER 


RESERVOIR PIPE 


BRAKE PIPE 







MUFFLER 


MUFFLER 



J— 



- 


— 


4 


Fig. 38 


CUT-OUT COCK . “• WHISTLF 

^WHISTLE VALVE 










































i54 


LAP POSITION 

When the brake-valve handle is placed in lap position, all 
parts leading to reservoir and brake cylinder are blanked by 
the rotary valve. 

PROPER METHOD OF BRAKE-VALVE OPERATION 

First. Place the brake-valve handle in full release posi¬ 
tion when running. 

Second. When a brake application is desired, place brake- 
valve handle in service position, allowing a flow of air from 
reservoir to brake cylinder. When the speed of car has been 
sufficiently retarded, the brake-valve handle should be placed 
in lap position. As the speed of car diminishes, the operator 
should graduate the release. This is accomplished by moving 
the brake-valve handle from lap to release position, which al¬ 
lows the pressure air of cylinder to escape to atmosphere. But 
replace the handle in lap again so as to retain a portion of the 
pressure in brake cylinder. Usually in making a full stop two 
graduated releases are used. Just prior to the final stop of car, 
move the brake-valve handle to full release until the pressure 
has fully escaped from the brake cylinder. Should the car be 
on a grade, a sufficient pressure must be held in brake cylinder 
to retain car until ready to start again, when the brake-valve 
handle is moved to full release for car to be operated. 

EMERGENCY APPLICATION 

An emergency application is used only in extreme case of 
emergency, to avoid accidents. This is obtained by moving 
the brake-valve handle to the extreme right, allowing a heavy 


J 55 


volume of air to flow to brake cylinder. When using this posi¬ 
tion the cylinder pressure ought not to be released until all 
danger is past. 


LAYING UP OF CAR 

When car is placed in car house the motor of compressor 
should be cut out, also the reservoir drained of water through 
drain cock. 


COMPRESSOR MOTOR 

An air-compressor motor is of the multipolar type, having 
two fields and active poles, and two consequent poles. The field 
coils or solenoids are in series connection. The armature is of 
the drum type, having two brushes in circuit. The armature is 
in series with field coils. The windings of the entire motor 
circuit allow of a direct connection from trolley to ground, with 
a 550- or 650-volt circuit. 

DIRECTION OF CURRENT WITH MOTOR CIRCUIT 

The current passes from the trolley wire through a switch 
and fuse, through a wire connecting with a brush-holder of 
armature circuit, passing through the armature circuit to op¬ 
posite brush-holder through a wire in connection with a field 
terminal, passing through field coil to opposite terminal, through 
a wire connecting with the terminal of the second field, passing 
through circuit of same, to opposite terminal, through a wire, 
which is grounded, connecting with motor frame or in connec¬ 
tion with the main ground wire of motor circuit. 


! 5 6 


DEFECTS 

When a pump governor becomes defective and cannot open 
the circuit of motor, the operator can cut out same by throwing 
motor-circuit switch. The circuit can be operated by motor- 
man, by his cutting in the switch to start compressor, and keep¬ 
ing it in until the pressure is at a maximum, then cutting out 
switch again, and proceeding in this manner until he has reached 
the car’s destination. Providing the operator is on the oppo¬ 
site end from cut-out switch he can allow the conductor to per¬ 
form this duty. 


FUSE 

When a fuse is blown in circuit, replace by another. Should 
the fuse again blow, undoubtedly a ground or short circuit has 
occurred in the motor circuit, unless the fuse is of a lower rat¬ 
ing than the circuit calls for. 

INSTRUCTIONS TO MOTORMEN FOR OPERATING PRICE 

HYDRAULIC BRAKE 

This brake has an operating lever which is located close 
to the dash between the hand-brake staff and the motor con¬ 
troller. To apply the brake, pull the lever slowly for an easy 
stop and quickly for an emergency stop, and ease off the pull 
on the lever slightly just before the car comes to a stop, same 
as is done with the hand brake. 

When starting up on a grade do not ease off the pull entirely, 
but hold the brake on until ready to start the car. If the brake 
is released on a grade the car will run backwards, but it can 


J 57 


be brought to a stop by applying the brake, same as when the 
car is running down the grade. 

The lever is provided with a ratchet and pawl, but these 
should not be used till after the car comes to a stop and when 
it is desired to hold the brake on. 

Before leaving the car platform always set the hand brake. 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR MOTORMEN IN OPERATION OF 
THE CHRISTENSEN STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 

First. To start up the compressor, close the canopy switch. 
This will automatically close the governor, so that the current 
will pass from trolley to ground through the motor driving the 
compressor. 

Second. Should the compressor refuse to work under these 
conditions, the fuse may be blown. If so, do not put a heavier 
fuse in than is suited for the size of the compressor. If the fuse 
is all right, the trouble is elsewhere, and you should try to locate 
it if you can do so; if not, you ought to report the matter to 
the proper authority. 

Third. All the stop-cocks on the train pipe, except on the 
front and rear end of the car, should be open. When open the 
handle stands crosswise to the pipe, and when closed it stands 
parallel with it. 

Fourth. To cut out a standard governor, close the |-inch 
stop-cock so that the T-handle stands crossways with the pipe 
and then move the governor plunger so as to make contact and 
close the circuit. The compressor can now be started and 
stopped by the hand switch in the canopy, but you should take 
care not to forget to start and stop the compressor so as to keep 





Fig. 39. Christensen Air-brake Equipment. 








































































I 59 


the pressures within the desired limits of 70 lbs. minimum and 
from 80 to 90 lbs. maximum. 

ENGINEER’S VALVE 

Lap Position. — The engineer’s valve, in direct control of 
the motorman, is made with a detachable handle which is only 
removable in what is known as the lap position, in which posi¬ 
tion the valve is neutral in the same manner as the main con¬ 
troller is by moving the reverse handle. 

Service application of the brakes is effected by moving the 
handle of the engineer’s valve to the first notch to the right. 
As soon as sufficiently hard pressure is brought against the 
wheels, the handle may be moved back into lap position, 
whereby the brakes remain set at that pressure. If it is de¬ 
sired to set the brakes a little harder, repeat the operation. By 
moving back to the lap position without releasing, the handle 
may be removed and the brake released from the other end of 
the car. This feature is very valuable where the terminus is 
on a grade. 

Slow Release of the Brakes. — 1 By removing the handle from 
lap position to the first notch to the left, a slower release of the 
brakes is effected, which release may be checked in the same way 
by moving the handle back to lap position, the same as in the 
service application of the brake. 

Emergency Application. — This is effected by moving the 
handle from lap as far as it will go to the right, in which posi¬ 
tion a large passage is afforded to allow compressed air to travel 
from the main reservoir to the brake cylinder, and the appli¬ 
cation of the brakes is practically instantaneous. This kind 


i6o 

of an application should not be made except when absolutely 
necessary. 

Quick Release. — By moving the handle from lap position 
to the left as far as it will go, a quick release is effected in the 
same manner as a quick application by establishing a large 
opening from the brake cylinder to the atmosphere, whereby 
the pressure escapes quickly from the brake cylinder, thereby 
letting off the brakes in a very short space of time. 

Running Position. — The handle of the engineer’s valve 
should always, when the brakes are not being applied or 
released, be on the first notch to the left or that of slower 
lease. 

Brake Leverage. — The leverage and total pressure on the 
brake cylinder is so proportioned that under ordinary circum¬ 
stances, with a dry rail, the wheels cannot skid. If the rail is 
in bad condition for stopping, the leverage and pressure, being 
the same as under normal conditions, would probably skid the 
wheels if the brake cylinder be charged with the full pressure. 
In such instances care should be taken not to slide the wheels 
by not introducing too much pressure to the brake cylinder. 
If the wheels slide, which can be instantly felt, the handle is 
moved over to slow release, letting out air until the wheels re¬ 
volve, then back to lap, and release again just before the car 
comes to a dead stop, so as to prevent a disagreeable chuck, 
which follows if a car comes to a dead stop with the brakes 
applied. 

Figure 39 shows a Christensen air-brake equipment, con¬ 
sisting of exactly the same parts as are mounted underneath 
the car, with the air brake and hand brake connected up in 
the same manner as it is in actual operation. 


i6i 


INSTRUCTIONS TO MOTORMEN IN THE OPERATION OF 

THE MERRITT AIR BRAKE COMPANY’S SYSTEM 

Starting Car. — Before starting car, motorman should first 
ascertain, both by consulting the air gauge and making at least 
one brake application, that he has air pressure with which to 
control the movement of the car. 

Motor Compressor. —To start the motor compressor, close 
the air-brake switch, when the pump will continue to run until 
the maximum pressure is reached. 

Fuse. — Should the compressor fail to start, see that the 
fuse is not blown. If it is, do not put in a larger fuse than is 
furnished for the motor compressor. Should the fuse again 
blow, in all cases report the same to the person in charge at 
the depot. 

Governor. — Should the governor (or controller) fail at any 
time to work when on the road, cut it out by closing the valve 
in the controller pipe. See that the cross-head is in contact 
with the terminals, and govern the air pressure with the air¬ 
brake switch, taking care to throw the switch when the max¬ 
imum and minimum pressures are reached. Report same 
when the car house is reached. 

Engineer's Valve. — The engineer’s valve is so constructed 
that the amount of brake pressure is automatically controlled 
according to the movement given the operating handle. 

The running position of the engineer’s valve is central, or 
when the operating handle is in the removable position. 

When you want to apply the brake, pull the handle to you 
until you feel the brake take hold. When you want to release 
the brake push the handle from you. 


162 


Service Stops. — To make a service stop, pull the handle 
to you until you feel the car coming to a stop, as with the hand 
brake, and should the car not respond as desired, a further 
movement of the handle will admit more air to the brake 
cylinder. 

As the car comes to a rest, release the brake pressure as 
with the hand brake, until there remains in the brake cylinder 
only enough pressure to hold the car. 

Emergency Stop. — Emergency application should be made 
only when absolutely necessary. For an emergency stop pull 
handle to you, first to biing the brake shoe in contact with 
wheels, and then pull the handle to extreme travel when full 
reservoir pressure will be admitted to the brake cylinder. 

Sliding Wheels. — Should the wheels slide’ on account of 
bad rail or other causes, release the air until the wheels begin 
to revolve, and then apply the air slowly until the required 
pressure is obtained. Too much brake pressure will slide the 
wheels every time. Don’t fail to see that you have air before 
starting the car. 

Don’t take the car out before trying the air brake. 

Don’t use larger fuse than is furnished for the motor com¬ 
pressor. 

Don’t try to start the car with the air brake set. 

Don’t use the air-brake handle upside down, because 
you may leave the valve in such a position that the brake 
cannot be set from the other end of the car when you change 
ends. 

Don’t make more than one application when stopping the 

car. 

Don’t fail to release the brake as the car comes to a stop. 


163 

Don’t apply more air when the wheels slide. Release and 
use less. 

Don’t make emergency application unless absolutely 
necessary. 

Don’t fail to put air-brake handle where it belongs. 

Don’t leave the car for any length of time without applying 
the hand brake. 

Don’t fail to report a poor braking car to the person in 
charge of shop. 

AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE SYSTEM 

An Automatic Air Brake System consists of the following 
parts: 

A Compressor. 

2 Main Reservoirs. 

1 Auxiliary Reservoir. 

2 Brake Valves for each unit. 

i Brake Cylinder. 

i Brake Slack Adjuster. 

i Triple Valve. 

i Slide Valve Feed Valve. 

1 Safety Valve. 

2 Duplex Gauges. 

i Conductor’s Valve. 

i Emergency Valve. 

Cut-out Cocks necessary for the entire system; also neces¬ 
sary piping. 

The compressor, reservoirs, brake cylinders, safety valves 
and gauges are the same as those used in a straight air system. 



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xsn~VH^ HfnNr^^vnl 


It 

isnvHxa 
yffgoMnAo gxvan 


'mooo mo-mo 


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Fig. 40. — Westinghouse AMM Traction Brake 





















































































BRAKE VALVES 


The brake valve is interposed between the control pipes 
and brake-pipe line. This valve performs two functions. 

First. To charge the brake-pipe line and aulixiary reser¬ 
voirs for brake release. 

Second. To allow a reduction in brake-pipe line pressure, 
for brake application, from auxiliary-reservoir pressure. 

BRAKE SLACK ADJUSTER 

Is an automatic device for taking up the slack in brake¬ 
rigging caused by brake-shoe wear. This device consists of a 
pneumatic tube which forces the piston and engages a pawl 
with a ratchet nut which turns upon a screw thread of pull bar 
in connection with brake mechanism. The air pipe of this 
device is connected to the brake cylinder and is only active 
upon a predetermined travel of brake-cylinder piston. 

CATECHISM OF SLACK ADJUSTER 

Q. What is an automatic slack adjuster? 

A. A device for automatically taking up the slack in brake 
rigging caused by wear of brake shoe. 

Q. Why should the slack be taken up in brake rigging? 

A. As the brake shoes wear thinner , it allows of a greater 
piston travel , thereby reducing the brake-cylinder pressure , de¬ 
creasing the holding power of brakes. 

Q. How is the brake shoe cared for on cars not equipped 
with a slack adjuster? 


i66 


A. The slack in rigging is taken up by hand by the dead 
levers on one or more connecting rods. 

Q. When a hand adjustment is made can a uniform piston 
travel be maintained? 

A. No. On account of a difference which exists between a 
standing and running travel. 

Q. What particular function does the slack adjuster per¬ 
form? 

A. It adjusts and maintains the piston at a proper running 
or operating travel regardless of lost travel, when each car is 
equipped with a slack adjuster. The travel of all pistons will be 
uniform when brakes are set to slow down or stop tram, allowing 
the same brake-cylinder pressure on all cars of train. 

Q. Is an automatic slack adjuster a complicated device? 

A. No, it is not. 

Q. How is its operation effected? 

A. The piping of slack adjuster is tapped into the brake 
cylinder at a point allowing a predetermined piston travel. 
When the piston travel exceeds this, air is allowed to flow to slack 
adjuster, where a small piston is forced outward, compressing a 
spring. Attached to piston stem is a pawl which engages a 
ratchet nut mounted within the casing of adjuster. The ratchet 
operates a rod having a screw thread which is attached to a brake 
lever of brake mechanism, thereby decreasing piston travel by 
pulling brake shoes closer to truck wheels. 

Q. How much is the piston travel decreased with an 
application? 

A. A fractional part of an inch, about of an inch . 


167 

Q. How can the slack be let out when replacing new 
shoes? 

A. By turning the ratchet nut backward; this being done by 
hand. 

Q. Is the slack adjuster capable of wearing out a set of 
shoes, at the same time maintaining a desired piston travel? 

A. Yes. 


TRIPLE VALVE 

The triple valve is in connection with the brake-pipe line 
and auxiliary reservoir. This device performs three functions: 

First. To charge the auxiliary reservoir. 

Second. To apply the brakes from auxiliary-reservoir 
pressure. 

Third. To release brakes, allowing air to flow from brake 
cylinder to atmosphere, and recharging auxiliary reservoir and 
brake-pipe line. 


FEED VALVE 

A slide-valve feed valve is placed between the main reservoir 
and control-pipe line so as to establish a constant pressure or 
nearly so in the control and brake-pipe line. At the present 
time a small pipe is in connection with the control line and triple 
valve for a quick recharge of auxiliary reservoirs for allowing 
graduated releases. 


EMERGENCY VALVE 


The emergency valve is a device placed in connection with 
a brake pipe through a pilot valve in the master controller. 
This valve is governed by a lever attachment of master-control¬ 
ling handle. As the lever is kept pressed down, the valve is 
closed; when the lever is released, a port is opened in the pilot 
valve which allows of a reduction of pressure in brake-pipe line, 
causing brake application. 

CONDUCTOR’S VALVE 

The conductor’s valve is a device in connection with brake- 
pipe line, performing similar functions to that of an emergency 
valve. This device is located on each unit of train and is only 
used in case of emergency or an accident. The brakes can be 
applied from any point in the train of each car unit. 

SAFETY VALVE 

The safety valve is a device for preventing the possibility of 
overcharging the main reservoir. 

DUPLEX GAUGE 

A duplex gauge is installed in each cab for indicating the 
pressure in the main reservoir, also the pressure in the brake- 
pipe line. The red hand represents main reservoir pressure. 
The black hand represents control and brake-pipe line 
pressure. 


169 


THE WESTINGHOUSE M TRIPLE VALVE 

The type M triple valve is of the pipeless type and designed 
for use in high-speed trains of from one to five cars, perform¬ 
ing all the functions as follows: 

First. “Quick Recharge” of the auxiliary reservoir. 

Second. “Quick Service” application of the brake. 

Third. “Graduated Release” of the brake-cylinder pres¬ 
sure. 

Fourth. “High-Pressure Emergency” application. 

It requires the usual brake pipe, auxiliary reservoir, brake 
cylinder and exhaust connections; also an additional connec¬ 
tion for either a control pipe or a supplementary reservoir. 

OPERATION OF THE M-2 TRIPLE VALVE CHARGING 

Air from the brake pipe enters the triple valve through pas¬ 
sage a, c and g to chamber h, thence through feed groove i to 
chamber R and the auxiliary reservoir. Brake-pipe air in 
passage a also raises the check valve, passes through ports y, j 
and u into chamber R and the auxiliary reservoir. At the same 
time air from the control pipe enters the triple valve through 
passage x and flows through port k into chamber R and the 
auxiliary reservoir. With these three channels supplying air 
to the auxiliary reservoir simultaneously, maximum pressure 
is obtained very quickly. 

The rate of charging the auxiliary reservoir through the 
three channels mentioned is such that a given volume of air 
can be restored in the auxiliary reservoir in the same interval 
of time required for the exhaust of an equal amount from the 


brake cylinder to the atmosphere, thus maintaining an avail¬ 
able maximum braking force at all times. 



Fig. 41. — The M-2 Triple Valve. 

SERVICE APPLICATION 


The parts of the triple valve being in charging position, 
shown in Fig. 42, a service reduction of brake-pipe pressure 
permits the auxiliary-reservoir pressure to move the piston, 
slide, and graduating valves to the left to service position, shown 
in Fig. 43. At the beginning of the service reduction, and be¬ 
fore the slide or graduating valves have moved, the check valve 
in passage y, which is held to its seat by the light spring and 
auxiliary-reservoir pressure, prevents any back flow of air from 
the reservoir to the brake pipe. The first movement of the 
piston closes feed groove i, and, carrying with it the graduatin 
valve toward the application position, closes charging ports 


aq 








and j, and the exhaust port m. With the slide and graduating 
valves in service position, shown in Fig. 43, air flows from the 
auxiliary reservoir through ports z and r to the brake cylinder. 
At the same time air in the brake-pipe passage a raises the check 
valve, flows through passage y into cavity v in the graduating 
valve, thence through ports q and r to the brake cylinder, thus 
producing a brake-pipe reduction at the same time that the 


Fig. 42. — The M Triple Valve, Release Position. 

auxiliary-reservoir air is flowing to the brake cylinder. This 
local reduction from the brake pipe to the brake cylinder pro¬ 
duces what is known as the “Quick-Service” feature of the 
triple valve, and results in a quick response of all triple valves 
to service reductions of brake-pipe pressure. 

The relative capacity of the ports conducting the air from 
the auxiliary reservoir to the brake cylinder, and from the 
brake pipe to the brake cylinder, is such that the auxiliary- 
reservoir pressure will be reduced more rapidly than that in 





































































































172 


the brake pipe. It is therefore impossible for the piston and 
graduating valve to remain in service-application position after 
the brake-pipe reduction through the brake valve is stopped. 
If the brake-pipe reduction at the brake valve, added to that 
from the brake pipe to the brake cylinder passing through port 
y, cavity v, and ports q and r, reduces the brake-pipe pressure 
more rapidly than the auxiliary-reservoir pressure can reduce 


/ 



Fig. 43.— The M Triple Valve, Service Position. 


by flowing through ports z and r to the brake cylinder, the 
triple-valve piston will be moved farther to the left, carrying 
with it the slide valve. This further movement will cause a 
partial or complete closure of the quick-service port q and r, 
thereby stopping the local brake-pipe reduction without redu¬ 
cing the capacity of ports z and r from the auxiliary reservoir to 
the brake cylinder, thus automatically guarding against the 
rate of brake-pipe reduction being so great as to cause unde¬ 
sired quick action. 


^ 0 































































































T 73 


When the flow of air from the auxiliary reservoir to the 
brake cylinder has reduced the pressure in the former to less 



Fig. 44.— The M Triple Valve, Service-Lap Position. 


than that in the brake pipe, the piston and graduating valve 
move to service-lap position, shown in Fig. 44, in which all 
ports are closed. 


RELEASE 

The piston being in service-lap position, shown in Fig. 44, 
raising the brake-pipe pressure moves the piston, slide, and 
graduating valve to the extreme right to release and charging 
position (Fig. 42), when the brake-cylinder pressure is ex¬ 
hausted through ports r and n into cavity w in the graduating 
valve, thence through ports m and p. At the same time the 
auxiliary reservoir is being recharged through the two charging 
ports y and x and feed groove i as described under the heading 
“Charging.” 




































































































174 


If the brake-valve handle is moved to release position and 
left there, the rise of brake-pipe pressure will be more rapid 
than that of the auxiliary reservoir, causing the piston to re¬ 
main in release position, resulting in a full release of the brakes. 

GRADUATED RELEASE 


If only sufficient air is permitted to flow into the brake pipe 
to move the piston, slide, and graduating valves to release posi¬ 
tion (Fig. 42), and the brake valve is then returned to lap, the 



flow of air from the control pipe through ports .v and k to the 
auxiliary reservoir will raise the pressure of the latter slightly 
above that in the brake pipe and move the piston and gradua¬ 
ting valve to the left to “graduated-release-lap” position, shown 
in Fig. 45, where the graduating valve has closed the exhaust 
port m from the brake cylinder to the atmosphere, ports x and 
k from the control pipe to the auxiliary reservoir, and ports y 





































































































1 7S 


and j from the brake pipe to the auxiliary reservoir, thus re¬ 
taining a portion of the air pressure in the brake cylinder. 
This operation of the triple valve, “Graduated Release,” may 
be repeated until the brake-pipe pressure has been increased 
to nearly its maximum. The amount of reduction in the brake 
cylinder during the graduated release depends upon the amount 
of increase of pressure in the brake pipe. 

SUPPLEMENTARY RESERVOIR 

When a supplementary reservoir is used in place of the con¬ 
trol pipe for the purpose of obtaining graduated release, its 
connection to the triple valve is made into port x as with the 
control pipe. With this system all the air passing to both the 
auxiliary reservoir and supplementary reservoir in charging 
is taken from the brake pipe through feed groove i and ports y, 
j, and u, into the auxiliary reservoir, thence down through ports 
k and x into the supplementary reservoir, which is charged to 
maximum auxiliary reservoir pressure. 

This passage connecting the two reservoirs is open only 
when the triple valve is in release position; therefore, supple- • 
mentary-reservoir air is retained at its maximum pressure while 
the brakes are applied. When the piston, slide valve, and 
graduating valve are moved to release position (Fig. 42), again 
establishing communication between the two reservoirs through 
ports x and k, the back flow of air from the supplementary 
reservoir to the auxiliary reservoir moves the piston and grad¬ 
uating valve to “graduated-release-lap” position (Fig. 45), 
unless the brake-pipe pressure is raised more rapidly than that 
in the auxiliary reservoir. Consequently the graduated release 


176 


is available under control of the operator substantially the same 
as when the control pipe is employed. 

EMERGENCY 


When the brake-pipe pressure is reduced more rapidly than 
the air can flow from the auxiliary reservoir to the brake cylin¬ 
der through service-application port z, the piston compresses 



the graduating spring and moves through its extreme traverse 
to the left to emergency position (Fig. 46). Air from the aux¬ 
iliary reservoir then flows past the end of the slide valve through 
port r into the brake cylinder. At the same time auxiliary- 
reservoir air flows through ports 5 and /, forces the “By-Pass 
Piston” to the right, opening the “By-Pass Valve.” Air from 
the control pipe then flows through port x, past the by-pass 
valve through ports r, r into the brake cylinder. When the 
auxiliary-reservoir and brake-cylinder pressure becomes equal, 


























































































i77 


air continues to flow from the control pipe and enters both the 
brake cylinder and auxiliary reservoir through port r. When 
the brake-cylinder and auxiliary-reservoir pressure nearly equals 
that of the control pipe, the by-pass piston and by-pass valve 
are returned to their normal position by the valve spring, cut¬ 
ting off further communication from the control pipe and the 
auxiliary reservoir and brake cylinder. This action of the 
triple gives a much higher brake-cylinder pressure in emergency 
than is possible with standard quick-action triple valves. 

The action of the triple valve in an emergency application 
is identical when installed with either a control pipe or a 
supplementary reservoir. 

The R-2 triple valve is of the pipeless type and designed 
for trains of five or more cars, but is also used on trains con¬ 
sisting of less than five cars when the conditions of service are 
such that the number of cars per train may at times, or in the 
future, be increased to more than five cars. It is of the quick- 
action triple-valve type, and performs the following functions: 

First. “Quick Recharge” of the auxiliary reservoir. 

Second. “Quick Service” application of the brake. 

Third. “Graduated Release” of the brake-cylinder pres¬ 
sure. 

It requires the usual brake pipe, auxiliary reservoir, brake 
cylinder, and exhaust connections, and an additional connection 
for either a control pipe or a supplementary reservoir. The 
use of the control pipe makes possible the graduation of the 
release, also an unlimited number of successive service appli¬ 
cations without loss of braking power, such as results with the 
standard plain and quick-action triple valves. The control- 
pipe pressure is maintained equal to the maximum brake-pipe 



178 

pressure by a feed valve located in the supply pipe from the 
main reservoir. 

When a supplementary reservoir is used in place of the 
control pipe, graduated release can be obtained, and a num¬ 
ber of brake applications made, without seriously reducing 
the braking power. 


Fig. 47. — The R-i Triple Valve. 






*79 


OPERATION OF R-2 TRIPLE VALVE 

Charging 



Referring to Fig. 48. Air from the brake pipe enters the 
triple valve at passage a and charges the auxiliary reservoir 


Fig. 48. — The R Triple Valve, Release Position. 


through two separate channels. Through passage a , e, f, and g, 
chamber h , feed groove i and chamber R into the auxiliary 
reservoir; also from passage a past the check valve to chamber 
Yj thence through ports y, j, and u into chamber R and the 






































































































































i8o 


auxiliary reservoir; at the same time air from the control pipe 
enters the triple valve through passage x and flows through 
port k into chamber R and the auxiliary reservoir. With these 
three channels supplying air to the auxiliary reservoir simul¬ 
taneously, maximum pressure is obtained very quickly. 

The rate of charging the auxiliary reservoir through the 
three channels mentioned is such that a given volume of air 
can be restored in the auxiliary reservoir in the same interval 
of time required for the exhaust of an equal amount from the 
brake cylinder to the atmosphere, thus maintaining an avail¬ 
able maximum braking force at all times. 

SERVICE APPLICATION 

The parts of the triple valve being in the position shown 
in Fig. 48, a service reduction of brake-pipe pressure moved the 
piston and slide valves toward the service position, shown in 
Fig. 49. When making this reduction, the check valve is held 
to its seat by the spring, preventing any back leakage of aux¬ 
iliary-reservoir pressure to the brake pipe through this large 
charging port. 

The first movement of the piston and graduating valve 
closes feed groove i, also charging ports j and k and the exhaust 
port m in the slide valve. During the further movement of the 
piston to service position, shown in Fig. 49, the closure of the 
ports mentioned is maintained by the graduating valve. When 
the slide and graduating valves are in service position, air flows 
from the auxiliary reservoir through ports d, z, and r to the brake 
cylinder, and at the same time air in the brake pipe at a raises 
the check valve and flows through ports y and 0 into cavity v 


i8i 


in the graduating valve, thence through ports q and t past the 
loosely fitted emergency piston into chamber X and the brake 
cylinder, thus producing a brake-pipe reduction at the same 
time that the auxiliary-reservoir pressure is flowing to the 
brake cylinder through port Z. 



Fig. 49. — The R Triple Valve, Service Position. 


The relative capacity of the ports conducting air from the 
brake pipe and auxiliary reservoir to the brake cylinder is such 
that the pressure in the auxiliary reservoir will reduce more 
rapidly than that in the brake pipe, therefore it is impossible 
for the piston and graduating valve to remain in service posi¬ 
tion after the brake-pipe reduction to the atmosphere is stopped. 






























































































































182 


When the auxiliary-reservoir pressure has been reduced to 
slightly less than that in the brake pipe, the piston moves the 
graduating valve to the right and closes service port z and quick- 
service port o, thus preventing any further flow of air to the 
brake cylinder until an additional reduction is made in the 
brake pipe. The piston and slide valves are now in “Service- 
Lap” position (Fig. 42). 


RELEASE 

The piston and slide valves being in service-lap position, 
shown in Fig. 50, raising the brake-pipe pressure above that 
in the auxiliary reservoir at R causes the movement of these 


























































































































i«3 


parts to the right to release and charging position (Fig. 48). 
In this position air from the brake cylinder passes through 
ports r and n into cavity w in the graduating valve, thence 
through ports m and p to the atmosphere. At the same time 
the auxiliary reservoir is being recharged from the brake pipe 
through ports y, j, and u and the feed groove i; also from the 
control pipe through port x and k as previously described. In 
order to obtain a full and continuous exhaust from the brake 
cylinder, it is necessary to feed air into the brake pipe continu¬ 
ously until the maximum pressure has been obtained. 

GRADUATED RELEASE 

If only sufficient air is permitted to flow into the brake pipe 
to move the piston, slide, and graduating valves to release posi¬ 
tion (Fig. 48), and the brake valve is then returned to lap, the 
flow of air from the control pipe through ports x and k to the 
auxiliary reservoir will raise the latter pressure slightly above 
that in the brake pipe and move the piston and graduating valve 
to the left to “Graduated-Release-Lap” position (Fig. 51), 
where the graduating valve has closed both the exhaust port m 
from the brake cylinder to the atmosphere, and port j and the 
ports x and k from the control pipe to the auxiliary reservoir, 
thus retaining a portion of the pressure in the brake cylinder. 
This operation of the triple valve is known as the “Graduated 
Release” and may be repeated until the brake-pipe pressure 
has been increased to nearly its maximum. The reduction 
of brake-cylinder pressure during a graduated release de¬ 
pends upon the amount of increase of pressure in the brake 
pipe. 


184 



Fig. 51. — The R Triple Valve, Graduated-Release-Lap Position. 

SUPPLEMENTARY RESERVOIR 

The operation of the R-2 triple valve when installed with 
the supplementary reservoir in place of the control pipe operates 
as described under the same heading in the description of the 
M-2 triple valve. 

EMERGENCY APPLICATION 

When a reduction of air pressure in the brake pipe reduces 
it more rapidly than the air can flow from the auxiliary reservoir 








































































































































to the brake cylinder through service application port z , the 
piston compresses the graduating spring and moves through 
its extreme traverse to the left to emergency position (Fig. 52). 
In this position air from the auxiliary reservoir flows through 



Fig. 52. — The R Triple Valve, Emergency Position. 


port t to the top of the emergency piston, forcing it downward 
and unseating the emergency valve. Brake-pipe pressure in 
passage a then raises the check valve, passing through chamber 
Y past the emergency valve into chamber X and the brake cylin¬ 
der. At the same time air from the auxiliary reservoir flows 
















































































































































to the brake cylinder through tail port x and port r until the 
pressures in the auxiliary reservoir and brake cylinder are 
equal. This action, it will be noted, is identical with that of 
the standard quick-action triple valves and accomplishes the 
same results. 

CHRISTENSEN AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 
Instructions for Operation 

General Instructions. — The engineer or motorman should 
familiarize himself with the air-brake equipment so that he 
may obtain a full advantage of the most efficient operation. 
He should discard the idea that the air brake is difficult and 
intricate to understand in its details. 

Following is a summary of main points for guidance: 

First. To start compressor, close the canopy switch. This 
will automatically close the governor so that current will pass 
from trolley to ground, through motor operating the com¬ 
pressor. 

Second. Should the compressor not start under this con¬ 
dition, the fuse in circuit may be blown. Replace by another 
fuse of the same rating specified for that circuit. Providing 
the fuse is in order an open circuit in motor of compressor may 
present itself. If unable to locate the trouble yourself, a report 
should be made to the person in charge so that repairs can be 
made promptly. 

Third. While the compressor is charging the main reser¬ 
voir, one of the engineer’s valves should be in lap position; the 
other in release or running position — also both stops are 
closed. If the valve is one with automatic train-pipe feed, the 


black hand will stop at about 70 pounds pressure, while 
the red hand of gauge will register at about 90 pounds, usually 
at which time the governor will open circuit of motor, stopping 
compressor. Providing the governor is out of order, a much 
higher pressure will be attained, when the motor circuit should 
be cut out by hand, by opening circuit switch. 

Fourth. All stop-cocks in train must be open, except those 
at extreme ends of train. When open, the handles stand cross¬ 
wise to the pipe. When closed, the handle is parallel with 
pipe. 

Fifth. When cutting out governor, close the J-inch stop-cock 
so that “T” handle stands crosswise with pipe, then move 
plunger of governor so as to make a contact, when compressor 
can be started, throwing out circuit switch when desirous of 
stopping same so as to keep the pressure within the desired 
limits. 

Sixth. Service Application. — The service applications are 
alike in both plain and quick-acting triple valves, and are ef¬ 
fected by making a reduction in train-pipe pressure of five or 
six pounds, then moving the engineer’s handle slowly back to 
lap, when reduction has been made. Providing a heavier appli¬ 
cation is desired, make another reduction of two or three pounds 
pressure in train pipe. This may be repeated until a 20-pound 
reduction has been made, at which time there is a complete 
equalization of pressure between the brake cylinder and the 
auxiliary reservoir. A further reduction in train pipe would 
be useless. 


i88 


EMERGENCY APPLICATION WITH PLAIN 

TRIPLE VALVE 

An emergency application with the plain triple valve is 
effected by making a quick reduction of 18 or 20 pounds pres¬ 
sure in train line. This has the effect of quickly opening com¬ 
munication between the auxiliary reservoir and brake cylinder. 
A complete equalization takes place as quickly as the port in 
triple valve will allow. 

EMERGENCY APPLICATION WITH THE QUICK-ACTING 

TRIPLE VALVE 

An emergency application with the quick-acting triple valve 
is effected by making a quick reduction of 10 or 12 pounds 
pressure in train line. This difference in pressure between 
the auxiliary reservoir and train line causes the emergency 
mechanism to be thrown into action, allowing compressed air 
to be admitted into the brake cylinder, both from train pipe 
and auxiliary reservoir, thereby applying brakes quickly and 
with maximum force. 


RELEASE 

The releasement of the brakes is the same, both with the 
plain and quick-acting triple valves, and is effected by moving 
the engineer’s valve handle into release and running position, 
thereby admitting air from the main reservoirs to the train pipe. 
The air pressure drives the triple valves into release position, 
allowing air to escape from brake cylinder to atmosphere. 

When the handle of the plain automatic engineer’s valve 


189 


is in release and running positon an unobstructed passage is 
formed from main reservoir to the train pipe so that pressure 
may equalize between them under all conditions while handle 
is in that position. In the automatic engineer’s valve with 
an automatic feed pipe, an unobstructed passage is formed 
between the main reservoir and train pipe when handle is in 
release and running position. But this passage is closed 
automatically as soon as the maximum train-pipe pressure 
(70 pounds) is reached. 

Under ordinary conditions all of brakes in train will readily 
release by the simple movement of engineer’s valve handle 
into release and running position, but, under special conditions, 
it might be necessary in order to release the brakes to introduce 
into the train pipe an excess pressure, above the specified pres¬ 
sure of 70 pounds. This is accomplished by pressing down 
lightly on the knob of the stem, which forces the feed valve 
open, thereby introducing higher pressure than the specified 
train-pipe line pressure. A complete equalization of pressure 
between the main reservoir and train-pipe line may be detected 
in this manner. 

To cut out the brake of any given car — providing the brake 
on any one of the cars constituting the train is out of order or 
adjustment so as to be ineffective — close the stop-cock nearest 
triple valve; open the drain-cock in auxiliary reservoir; thus 
letting all the pressure out in the system of that car. As soon 
as the triple valve commences to exhaust, close the stop-cock 
in triple valve as the pipe will then be released and out of action. 


190 


MAKING UP A TRAIN 

In making up a train, care should be taken to have the stop¬ 
cocks on all the communicating cars open; also, to have the 
stop-cocks in the triple-valve pipe open, but of course the stop¬ 
cocks on the front and rear end of the train must be closed. 
Remember to hang the hose coupling, on the front and rear 
end, in the dummy coupling to prevent dirt and dust from 
entering the train pipe. Before the train is put in service, 
the brakes should be fully tried, both for applications and re¬ 
lease. In parting a train the uncoupling of the hose should 
always be done by hand. 

CONDUCTOR’S VALVE 

The conductor’s valve placed on each car and in direct 
connection with the train pipe is arranged with a cord within 
easy reach of the conductor, so that, in cases of emergency, he 
may reduce the train-pipe pressure and thereby apply the 
brakes by opening this valve. As soon as the engineer notices 
the setting of the brakes in this manner, he should immediately 
shut off the current and put his valve in lap position, otherwise, 
with a self-closing conductor’s valve, the brake may again 
release. Where a hand-closing stop-cock is used for the con¬ 
ductor’s valve, always close it after this kind of an application 
has been made, otherwise the brakes cannot be released. 


igi 


CATECHISM ON AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 

Q. When operating an air brake, what power is used? 

A. Compressed air. 

Q. By what means is the compressed air obtained? 

A. By an air compressor. 

Q. What causes brake application? 

A. By air being admitted to the brake cylinders, forcing a 
piston out which by means of a suitable system of connecting 
rods and levers pulls the brake shoes against the wheel. 

Q. How are the brakes released? 

A. The air in brake cylinder is allowed to escape to at¬ 
mosphere. A spring on the inner side of brake cylinder presses 
against the piston, forcing same to its normal position, at the 
same time the brake release spring tends to force shoes away from 
the wheel. 

Q. What is the present type of air brakes? 

A. Quick-action automatic air brake. 

Q. Why are they called automatic air brakes? 

A. For this reason: no matter what causes a reduction in the 
brake-pipe pressure, the brakes are applied automatically. 

Q. What parts compose an automatic air-brake equip¬ 
ment? 

A. An air compressor, pump governor, main reservoirs, 
auxiliaries, feed valve, safety valve, 2 brake valves, 2 air gauges, 
triple valve, conductor's valve, 2 air strainers, 2 pair of hose and 
coupling, 6 cut-out cocks, 1 double cut-out cock, 1 air strainer with 
check valve and 1 branch-pipe air strainer. 


192 


Q. Where are brake valves and air gauges located? 

A. In the motorman's cab, at each end of the car. 

Q. What parts are installed on the trailer car with a quick- 
action brake? 

A. Auxiliary reservoir, brake cylinder, triple valve, controller 
and brake-pipe line, conductor's valve, 4 cut-out cocks, 2 pairs oj 
hose and couplings, 1 double cut-out cock, air strainer with 
check valve, and 1 branch air-pipe strainer. 

Q. What differences, if any, are there between the auxiliary 
reservoirs, triple valves, and brake cylinders used in motor 
cars to those installed in a trailer car? 

A. None. 

Q. Where is the air stored with the automatic system for 
brake application? 

A. In the auxiliary reservoir, under each car. 

Q. What method is pursued to apply an automatic air 
brake? 

A. By making a reduction in the brake-pi pe pressure, which 
causes the triple piston to move , allowing air to flow from the 
auxiliary reservoir to brake cylinder. 

AIR COMPRESSOR 

Q. Where and how are air compressors installed? 

A. The compressor is placed in a cradle suspended from the 
sills of the car. 

Q. In which direction does the compressor rotate? 

A. The shaft always turns so that the compression part of 
stroke is on the upper half or revolution, or the compressor rota- 


193 


tion is the same as the hands of a clock , when viewing the com¬ 
pressor at gear side. 

Q. What method is used for pump lubrication? 

A. The crank case is filled zvith oil up to a point determined 
hy the oil fitting on the side of crank case. When the level of the 
oil becomes visible in this fitting the oil level is correct. 

Q. How are the parts of a pump lubricated? 

A. By the connecting rod heads driving the oil over the inside 
of crank case , and such part of cylinders that are exposed. By 
this means all crank-shaft bearings as well as cylinders and 
wrist pins are properly lubricated. 

Q. How often should the oil be replenished? 

A. Once a week. 

Q. What length of time should elapse before the suction 
box should be cleaned? 

A. Once or twice a month should suffice. 

Q. How is the suction box cleaned? 

A. The outer perforated plate should be removed and the 
pulled curled hair taken out and thoroughly cleaned by beating 
in a bag , or by compressed air or other efficient means. It is 
then replaced and outer perforated plates replaced in position. 

Q. At what pressure is the governor set to start the com¬ 
pressor? 

A. They are set for varied pressures , usually 105 pounds. 


194 


MAIN RESERVOIRS 

Q. Where does the air flow to from the compressor? 

A. To the main reservoirs. 

Q. Where are the main reservoirs usually located? 

A. Under each motor car. 

Q. What pressure is usually carried in main reservoirs? 

A. 120 pounds , maximum , and 105 pounds minimum. 

Q. How often should a main reservoir be drained? 

A. Daily. 

Q. Where does the air flow to from main reservoir? 

A. Through the feed valves to control pipe and thence to 
operating valve. 

Q. What duty does a safety valve perform? 

A. It prevents overcharging of the brake system in case the 
electric-pump governor fails. 

SLIDE-VALVE FEED VALVE 

Q. Where does the air flow to from the main reservoir? 

A. To the slide-valve feed valve. 

Q. What is a slide-valve feed valve? 

A. It is a device in the pipe from main reservoir to the control 
pipe. This device automatically reduces the pressure for the 
control pipe so as to allow a constant pressure. 

Q. What causes a reduction in control-pipe pressure? 

A. Reinstating brake-pipe pressure at release, recharging 
the auxiliary reservoirs, also maintaining an air pressure of 90 
pounds in the system against leakage when brakes are not applied . 


!95 


Q. What care should be exercised with a feed valve? 

A. The piston and its slide valve should occasionally be 
taken out; all dirt and gum removed from them and the chambers. 
Great care should be exercised not to leave any lint , and to avoid 
bruising the parts removed. A slight amount of some light 
lubricating oil should be applied on the face of the slide valve 
and spring of the latter. 

Q. Should the main reservoir be drained to do this? 

A. No. Close the cut-out cock between the feed valve and 
main reservoir. 

Q. When properly regulated what can cause the pressure 
to feed too high in the control pipe? 

A. A leaky slide valve. 

Q. What will prevent the feed valve from opening promptly? 

A. The piston becoming heavily coated with a greasy deposit 
which retards rapid equalization of the pressure on both sides of 
the piston. 

Q. What care should be displayed in regulating the feed 
valves? 

A. Where a number of feed valves are in a train they should 
be regulated as nearly alike as possible. 

CONTROL PIPE 

Q. Where does the air flow to after leaving the feed valve? 

A. Through the control pipe to the operating valve. 

Q. What is the control pipe for? 

A. For conveying to brake valve a supply of air furnished 
by all mam reservoirs oj train. 


196 


Q. What are the connections to the control pipe? 

A. From the jeed valve to brake valve and to triple valve . 

Q. What is the pressure in control pipe? 

A. 90 pounds. 

Q. Is there any variation in control-pipe pressure during 
brake application? 

A. No. 

THE ENGINEER’S BRAKE VALVE 

Q. Where does the air flow to from the feed valves? 

A. Through control pipe to brake valve. 

Q. What is the pressure from the feed valves to brake 
valves? 

A. 90 pounds. 

Q. Where does the air flow to from the brake valve? 

A. To the brake-pipe and auxiliary reservoir. 

Q. What is the purpose of a brake valve? 

A. It connects the control pipe to brake pipe; to release the 
brakes , charge the system and maintain a pressure. To connect 
the brake pipe through suitable passages to atmosphere , to apply 
the brakes , to break all connection between the control and brake- 
pipe line or atmosphere , and to hold the brakes applied. 

Q. On what position is there a communication from con¬ 
trol pipe to brake pipe? 

A. In running position. 

Q. In this position, how should the control and brake- 
pipe pressure stand? 

A. Equal. 


i 9 7 


Q. What is the running position to be used for? 

A. For recharging the brake pipe and auxiliary reservoir 
and prevent brake-pipe leakage from setting the brakes. 

Q. What is the next position of the brake valve? 

A. Lap position; all parts closed. 

Q. When is it used? 

A. When holding the brakes on after an application, or when 
graduating the release, or when they have been applied by open¬ 
ing a conductor's valve. 

Q. How should the brake-valve handle be turned to lap? 

A. Slowly, after making a brake-pipe reduction so as to cut 
off the exhaust gradually, that the lead brakes will not be released 
by the air surging forward quickly, when going to release position 
to graduate the release. 

Q. Why should it be returned quickly when graduating 
the release? 

A. Because the longer the brake-valve handle is in the release 
position, the lower the brake-cylinder pressure will reduce. 

Q. What is the next position, and its use? 

A. Service application, and is used for all ordinary positions. 

Q. How many service application notches has a brake 
valve? 

A. 2 service and intermediate. 

Q. When should they be used? 

A. With a 6-car train the brake-valve handle can be moved 
to the second service application opening, but with not more than 
3 or 4 cars the first or intermediate notch should be used. 


198 

Q. When a three or four car train is being operated, why 
not use the service notch? 

/ A. Owing to the comparatively short brake pipe , the reduc¬ 
tion of brake-pipe pressure would be sufficiently rapid to cause 
quick action , resulting in an emergency application of all brakes , 
when only a partial service application was intended. 

Q. What is the next position? 

A. Emergency , or quick action. In this position a large 
direct opening is made from the brake pipe to atmosphere. 

Q. When is this precaution to be used? 

A. Only in case of emergency. The handle to be held in 
this position until all danger is passed. 

BRAKE PIPE 

Q. What is the brake pipe? 

A. It is the connection between the brake valve and triple 
valves, auxiliary reservoir and brake cylinders. 

Q. What difference in pressure between the control and 
brake pipe takes place when an application is made? 

A. When the brake-valve handle is in full release , there is no 
difference. When making application of the brakes , the brake- 
pipe pressure is lower than the control pipe; an amount dependent 
on what brake-pipe reduction is made by the motormen. 

Q. What devices are placed in the connection from the 
brake pipe to the triple valve? 

A. The double cut-out cock and branch-pipe air strainer. 

Q. What is the double cut-out cock? 

A. It is a cock having two entirely separate passages through 
it; one tapped at each end for a 1-inch pipe — the other for a 


igg 


%-inch pipe. The large one is for the branch pipe for the brake 
pipe to the triple valve. The smaller one is for the branch pipe 
from the control pipe to the triple valve. The turning of the 
double cut-out cock closes the communication from both the brake 
and control pipes. 

Q. Why is it necessary to close both the brake and control 
pipe from the triple valve at the same time? 

A. It makes it impossible, providing anything should happen 
to the brake cylinder and reservoir and triple valve, to cut them out 
from one oj these pipes and not from the other, which might readily 
occur, providing each individual pipe had a separate cut-out cock. 

Q. When should the double cut-out cock be closed? 

A. Only when the brake apparatus becomes defective in that 
individual car and necessitates the cutting out of that unit. 

Q. What is the branch-pipe strainer used for? 

A. To prevent dirt and scale from entering the triple valve, 
possibly rendering it inactive. 

Q. How are connections made between cars? 

A. By hose coupling. 

Q. What is it necessary to do when coupling or uncoupling 
hose connections between cars? 

A. To uncouple, it is first necessary to close the cocks of 
that pipe line on both cars before attempting to uncouple the 
hose. In coupling see that the hose couplings are properly con¬ 
nected before opening the angle cocks. 

Q. When making up trains, what should be done with the 
hose at the extreme end of trains? 

A. All hose should be fastened up to the dummy coupler 
devices. 


200 


TRIPLE VALVE 

Q. To what is a brake pipe connected under car? 

A. To the triple valve. 

Q. Why is it called the triple valve? 

A. Because it performs three functions: 

(1) To charge the auxiliary reservoir. 

(2) To apply the brakes. 

(3) To release the brakes. 

GENERAL OPERATION 

Q. How should brakes be tested in preparing a train for 
service? 

A. First, see that hose cut-out cocks are closed at both ends 
of train and those between cars are open. Next, see that all 
brake valves are lapped with the exception of the units to be 
operated, and this must be in release position. Start compressors, 
charge the brake pipe and air reservoir, allowing the compressor 
to operate until the governor cuts it out. Motorman will now 
apply the brakes by allowing a 10-pound reduction, placing the 
brake-valve handle on lap. Now see if all pistons in train have 
moved out such a distance as to indicate that the brakes are all 
applied in all cars of train. The brakes can now be re¬ 
leased from the last car at end of train. See that all brake 
cylinders are fully released and brake shoes are free from the 
wheels. 

Q. What reduction in pressure is necessary for a service 
application? 

A. 18 to 20 pounds pressure. 


201 


Q. How many applications should be made in making an 
ordinary service stop? 

A. As a general rule, one. 

Q. What is the meaning of an application? 

A. From the time the brakes are applied until fully released. 
No matter how many reductions or graduated releases. Pro¬ 
viding a full release has been made and a reapplication has been 
executed, this would be termed as a second application. 

Q. How is an ordinary service stop made? 

A. By making an 18 or 20 pound reduction, obtaining a full 
cylinder pressure at once, gradually reducing same as speed of 
train decreases. 

Q. Should this method always be followed? 

A. No, if the train is running slow it is not necessary to 
have a full pressure in brake cylinder. 

Q. Why is it necessary that the pressure in brake cylinder 
be graduated as the speed of train decreases? 

A. The friction between the brake shoes and wheels is less 
for high speed than for low speed, having the same pressure in 
both cases. By making graduated releases the skidding of wheels 
is overcome. 

Q. To make a complete release of brakes, how should the 
brake valves be handled? 

A. It should be moved to the release position and allowed to 
remain there. 

Q. If brakes release after a service application, where 
should the cause be looked for? 

A. Examine brake valves in train until trouble is located . 


202 


Q. In case of emergency, when it is essential to stop the 
train in the shortest distance possible, how should the brake 
valve be operated? 

A. The handle should be thrown to the full emergency and 
left there until the train has come to a full stop, or all danger is 
past. 

Q. If the motorman has the brake partially applied with a 
service application, should he be suddenly flagged, what should 
he do? 

A. Put the valve handle in the emergency position and leave 
it there until stopped. 

Q. In case of emergency, should a motorman reverse his 
motor? 

A. Yes, but only as a last resort to prevent an accident. 
When using a multiple unit train, use the first position, or switch¬ 
ing position. 

Q. In case of an accident, how should the conductor’s valve 
be handled? 

A. It should be pulled wide open and allowed to remain, 
or be held in that position until the train stops. Before leaving 
valve see that it is properly closed. 

Q. Can the brakes be released from the conductor’s valve? 

A. No. It must be remembered, to release the brakes, it is 
necessary to either put air into the brake pipe or take it out of the 
auxiliary reservoir. 

Q. Should the brakes apply suddenly without the aid of 
the motorman, what would be the cause? 

A. Either a burst hose, burst brake pipe, or train breaking 
in two. 


203 


TROUBLES ON THE ROAD AND HOW TO OVERCOME 

THE SAME 

In case of a motor dropping, by the aid of a piece of rope it 
may be secured after raising motor to proceed to car house. In 
raising the motor by its own power, the reverse switch is set for 
certain directions, viz., first, when the motor is at rear end of 
car in that direction, the motor on head end of car must be cut 
out, and the reverse switch thrown for forward direction. When 
applying power to raise dropped motor, only the first position 
of controller should be used. Second, when the motor is on 
the end of car from which it is being operated, the rear motor 
must be cut out, and the reverse switch thrown for backward 
motion of car. Great care should be exercised, in both of the 
above-mentioned cases, not to leave power on after motor has 
been raised to the proper height, and blocking same secure. 

With a rheostat car, in case of it coming to a standstill, 
there are but a few connections that can be examined in trying 
to locate the trouble; however, first of all, see that your over¬ 
head switch has contact, and then try your reverse, and be sure 
that it is fully reversed to give a thorough contact. A great 
many cars have had to be pushed or towed to the depot on 
account of this trouble. When trying to locate this trouble, 
examine your fuse box and see that the fuse is not blown out; 
see that the thumbscrews are tightly secured on the fuse, and 
while you are there try the fuse-box leads and lightning- 
arrester leads, to see that they are not disconnected. Try the 
lamp circuit to see if the lights can be lit, and see whether the 
supply wire fastened to the trolley base is burned or broken 
off. If that wire is found all right the lights ought to burn, 


204 


unless the car is on a dead rail, or the rails are covered with 
sand and dirt, and the motor ground wire has been broken, 
as the light circuit depends upon a ground before it will burn; 
also the motor must have a ground before it can be operated. 
Also see if the supply wire that leads to the rheostat is con¬ 
nected, and then see if the contact shoe is on the rheostat arm; 
also try the end wire on the rheostat. The end wire is the one 
on the inside, while the loop wire is the outer one. If the end 
wire on the rheostat was disconnected the motors would not 
take the power until the contact shoe touched the loop segment, 
or if the field-end connection at the motors were either burned 
off or disconnected the result would be the same, and the car 
would not start until the power was brought to the loop con¬ 
nection. 

After having made a careful examination of the rheostatic 
connections, then raise the trap and try the motor connections, 
and if you do not find any of them loose give them a little pull; 
or it may be that one of them is burned off, and if so, you may 
connect temporarily with a piece of wire. At any time, when 
making a temporary connection with a piece of wire, be sure 
and clear it off of the motor shell, so that it will not ground 
and burn off again, and in case of your having to use small 
wire, do not force your car too much, for you may burn it off 
again. A small water pipe will not carry as much water as a 
larger one, and it is the same with wire — the smaller the wire 
the less current it will carry. After having examined the 
motor connections, including the main ground wire, and having 
found them all right, there is but little more that could be done 
on the road in trying to locate the trouble. It might be a 
short or broken carbon, or perhaps the carbon may be stuck 


205 


in the holder; but you can easily determine this by opening the 
motor cover and pulling the brush hammers back and inspect¬ 
ing the carbons. After having done this, and you fail to locate 
the trouble, your only resort is to have the car towed home. 
If you ever have occasion to examine the carbons, do not fail 
to put the brush hammers down again. When you have a 
car equipped with two motors and controlled by the rheostatic 
method of control, sometimes you may find that only one of 
the motors is working. Upon investigation you will find that 
in a great many cases the reverse has not been fully thrown. 
You should always make sure and throw the reverse over in 
full; if not, only one motor will work, besides there is the dan¬ 
ger of burning off the contact tips on the reverse switch, and 
then the car would have to be changed off or taken out of ser¬ 
vice, and when the shop man would take down the reverse 
switch cover he could plainly see that it was caused by care¬ 
lessness on the part of the motorman. 

When you have occasion to push or tow a car equipped 
with two motors and controlled by a T. H. rheostat, be sure 
and have it reversed in the same direction that you are moving, 
because if you do not, and when you attain a little speed, one 
motor will act as a dynamo and drive the other motor in a 

reverse direction as a motor, and you will hardly be able to move 

/ 

it unless you couple it to two or three cars. 

If at any time you have a collision with another car or a 
wagon, and the controlling stand is bent so badly that you can¬ 
not either apply your power or reverse your car, you can run 
your car with the overhead switch, and to reverse the direc¬ 
tion cross-connect the brush leads in both motors, if a double- 
motor car. Also in connection with cars operated by the 


206 


rheostatic method of control, it may be well to remind you that 
you should not run through water at a high rate of speed, or 
with the power on, as water splashing up underneath and on 
the rheostat is liable to cause the current to jump from the rheo¬ 
stat spindle to the frame, and from there to and through the 
conductors laid in the frame, and then through the motors, so 
that when you do shut off the power with the handle in the reg¬ 
ular manner, the car would still move. As previously stated, 
these conductors are insulated from the rheostat frame, but in 
course of time the insulation is liable to become imperfect. 
Of course, as long as the insulation remains perfect there is 
no danger of this occurring. If you ever have a car that con¬ 
tinues to move after you have apparently shut the power off, 
you should investigate at once. Throw off your overhead 
switch immediately. Upon investigation you will find that 
either the rheostat spindle is grounded to the frame, or that 
the cable has slipped on the drum. This electrical trouble 
is one that often happens during rain or snow storms. In a 
case of the kind it is advised that, when you want to make a 
stop, you should throw off the power, except the first quarter 
position, and then throw off the overhead switch, leaving your 
handle still on the first quarter, and then when you want to 
start up again release your brake and throw on the overhead 
switch and increase the speed of the car as usual with the 
controlling handle. The idea of leaving the power on the first 
quarter and throwing off the overhead switch is that by so doing 
you are not so liable to make mistakes, and besides, it prevents 
the arcing between rheostat spindle and rheostat frame, which 
increases each time you throw off the power with the control¬ 
ling handle, unless you throw off the overhead switch as well. 


207 


In case of trouble with controller cars, you will examine 
in much the same manner as with cars equipped with the 
old-style T. H. rheostat. Of course you do not have the rheo¬ 
stat connections and contact shoe to examine, but you have 
the controller instead. If your car does not move on the first 
position and will move on the second position, it will be either 
that one of the contact fingers has no contact, or that one of 
the resistance leads is either disconnected, burned, or broken 
off. If both controllers work the same, it would be in resist¬ 
ance lead R-i being disconnected or burned off from resist¬ 
ance. Of course it may not be where it is connected to the 
resistance as it might be in the controller. If it is in the con¬ 
troller, then the car could be operated from the opposite con¬ 
troller, and would start up on the first position. You will 
readily see by diagram No. i, Fig. 52a, how this would affect 
the operation of a car. 

The long line in the diagram represents the R-i resistance 
wire, running from No. 1 controller to No. 2 controller, the 
entire length of the car. The short line represents the R-i 
tap leading to the resistance. If there is a break at any point 
between A and B, then the car will not start on No. 1 con¬ 
troller until you turn the handle to the second position, but 
will start up on the first position on No. 2 controller. If there 
is a break at any point between B and D, or, in fact, anywhere 
between the R-i tap and No. 2 controller, the car will not 
start until the second position on No. 2 controller. If there 
is a break at any point between C and B, then the car will not 
start from either controller until put on the second position. 
If the R-i tap is burnt off where it is tapped on (marked B), 
then the car will not start from either controller until put on 


208 


the second position, providing all the other resistance wires 
are in the proper connection. 

If all the resistance wires were disconnected on a K con¬ 
troller, the car would not start until the third position; or if 
R-3 wire was disconnected, it would not start until the third 
position, because R-3 is the negative wire leading from the 
resistance. If all the wires were disconnected from one of 
the controllers, it would not prevent operating the car by the 
other controller, providing that the wires were not touching 
each other on the other end, meaning the end that was dis¬ 
connected. 


A 





Fig. 52a. 


If you have a car and one of the controllers does not give 
the notches as it should, you should report the defect to the 
person in charge. You can easily tell when a controller has 
this defect, because you will not hear the click that it gives 
when in order. The cause of this is that the cam roller spring 
is either broken or has become detached, or the rivet going 
through the cam roller is worn through, or perhaps the cam 
or star wheel is loose on the spindle. Controllers are auto¬ 
matic in every detail and should check any tendency to 
carelessness or forgetfulness on the part of a motorman. 
Controllers are known as series parallel controllers. Usually 
this method of control differs from the rheostatic method in 
this way: with the rheostatic method, the motors are connected 










209 


permanently in parallel, while with the series parallel method 
the motors are first temporarily connected in series, the cur¬ 
rent first passing through one motor and then through the 
other without division. By this means, together with a slight 
resistance, the proper starting pressure is applied, and the 
motors being in series, the same current that starts one flows 
through and is used again in the other. After the car is started 
the voltage applied to each motor is increased by throwing 
both motors in parallel. 

The safe running positions on a 7-notch G. E. controller 
are 3 and 6, and on a 9-notch 4 and 8. Where the shunt 
resistance is used the loop would be the fourth and seventh 
position on a 7-point controller, and the fifth and ninth position 
on a 9-point controller. When running on the shunt position of 
controller, a portion of the current is shunted from the field 
circuit, and allows an increase of current to armature circuit, 
causing an increase of speed, due to the weakening of the 
field magnetic circuit. 

RAILWAY SIGNALS 

There are several classes of railway signals for governing 
train operation: 

First. Semaphore type of signals. 

Second. Low dwarf signals. 

Third. Pot signals. 

Semaphore signals are used by railway companies for the 
purpose of conveying a signal at distance, either for danger 
or for safety. There are two classes known as (1) home sig¬ 
nal, and (2) distant signal. The home signal is designated 


210 


by a blade with square end and painted red; also having on its 
face a vertical white stripe. The distant signal is designated 
by a fish-tail blade, and usually painted green or yellow, having 
a V-shape black stripe on face of blade. These signals are also 
designated by different colored lights for night. The home 
signal when set for danger has arm at angle of 90 degrees, or 
horizontal when displayed for day, and when set for danger 
at night, a red light is displayed; when set for safety in day, 
the semaphore arm is dropped to an angle of about 60 
degrees, and when at night, a green light is displayed. 

The distant signal indicates caution when the arm is at an 
angle of 90 degrees for day signal, when it displays a yellow 
light at night. When set for safety the arm is dropped to 
an angle of about 60 degrees for day, or displays a green light 
at night. When a distant signal has its arm at an angle of 
90 degrees by day and displays a yellow light at night, it indi¬ 
cates that the home signal is set at danger. When the dis¬ 
tant signal has its arm at an angle of 60 degrees by day, 
and displays a green light at night, it indicates that the home 
signal is also clear, or at safety. 

Where there are three semaphore arms located on the same 
mast, they govern three'tracks; usually the arm at the top gov¬ 
erns the extreme right-hand track, the next lower or middle 
arm governs the track to the left of that track, while the lower 
arm governs the third track, or the track to the extreme left. 

PERMISSIVE SIGNALS 

A permissive signal is practically a positive signal, and is 
of the home signal type. The permissive signal, when set at 
danger, indicates stop, but after two blasts of the whistle are 







* 






. • 












\ /'ll 

'' R» 



\T « 0 

^ B 


HOME SIGNAL 
POSITION “A” 

DENOTES STOP. 
POSITION “b’' 

DENOTES PROCEED. 


DISTANT SIGNAL 
POSITION “A” 

DENOTES HOME SIGNAL IN 
STOP POSITION. 
POSITION “b” 

DENOTES HOME SIGNAL IN 
CLEAR POSITION. 


HOME SIGNAL 


DISTANT SIGNAL 












211 


sounded it allows the train to enter that block under full con¬ 
trol, until the next block is reached, and so on, until the train 
reaches a positive home signal. This signal is designated by a 
pointed end on semaphore blade; there is also usually in con¬ 
nection with this a distant signal, which is mounted upon the 
same mast with the permissive signal, which are operated 
automatically by movement of train; both signals are set at 
danger and caution, while entering block; when the train 
arrives at the next mast, the permissive and caution signal is 
also set for danger and caution on that mast, but after passing 
the second mast, the permissive signal on the first mast is set 
at safety, and so on until train approaches a positive home 
block. These signals are known as automatic semaphore 
signals. 


DWARF SIGNALS 

A dwarf signal is a pot signal, carrying a semaphore arm, 
and also having lamps. The semaphore arm of this type of 
signal is recognized by its color by day, and by different colored 
lenses at night. These are usually red and green discs. By 
day, when the semaphore arm is at an angle of 90 degrees, the 
signal is set at danger, and when at an angle of 60 degrees, the 
signal is set at safety. When displaying red light at night 
the signal is set at danger, or when displaying a green or yellow 
light it indicates that the signal is set at caution or safety; 
this type of signal is installed for yard service, also for cross¬ 
over work on main line. 


212 


SERIES OF QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS RELATIVE TO 
THE OPERATION OF ELECTRIC CARS 

Q. What is the office of a fuse? 

A. To prevent an overload of current at the motor terminals. 

Q. How does a fuse prevent an overload of current at 
motor terminals? 

A. By fusing or melting when an overload of current occurs 
in that circuit. 

Q. What is meant by an overload of current? 

A. An overload of current means that amount of current 
which exceeds the carrying capacity of the fuse in circuit. 

Q. What are causes producing an overload? 

A. An overload is caused by improper use of controller, such 
as feeding too fast, or by reversing, also by lightning striking the 
line, which allows a heavy charge upon the line. 

Q. Why is the fuse made to be the weakest part of the 
circuit? 

A. So as to rupture the circuit at that point. 

Q. Why is it necessary to rupture the circuit at that point? 

A. So as to protect the equipment. 

Q. At what part of the circuit is the fuse usually placed? 

A. Between the second main motor switch and the lightning 
arrester or controller. 

Q. Of what material is a fuse usually composed? 

A. A fuse is usually composed of lead, with a certain amount 
of alloy in its composition. 


213 


Q. How is the carrying capacity of a fuse designated? 

A. By having the number of amperes stamped on one of the 
copper terminals of the fuse. 

Q. What precaution should be used in inserting a fuse? 

A. When inserting a fuse, the terminals should be thoroughly 
secured with thumbscrews of binding-post. 

Q. Why is it injurious to run on resistance points? 

A. On account of heating resistance coils. 

Q. Why is resistance used in a motor circuit? 

A. Resistance is placed in circuit with a motor for the 
purpose of overcoming a rush of current to motor terminals, 
on starting, which would cause a too sudden movement of 
armatures. 

Q. How is the resistance sometimes spoken of relative 
to the motor circuit? 

A. The resistance, in connection with a motor circuit, is 
sometimes termed exterior resistance. 

Q. What are resistance coils also called? 

A. Rheostat or diverter coils. 

Q. What are resistance coils composed of? 

A. For street railway motors the resistance is generally com¬ 
posed of long strips of iron ribbon. Several years ago resistance 
coils were composed of German silver wire, but for commer¬ 
cial reasons this has been discarded for either wrought or cast 
iron. 

Q. How are the resistance coils made up? 

A. Resistance coils are made up in two forms, one of which 
is known as the panel form, in which the resistance is placed in 


214 


layers , with asbestos between each layer; the other is cylindrical 
in shape , with asbestos or mica insulation separating the layers 
of the coil. 

Q. Why is asbestos or mica placed between each layer? 

A. To prevent the coils from being short-circuited and to 
secure the full resistance of the coil. Both of these materials are 
insulators and are capable of standing a high temperature with¬ 
out deterioration. 

Q. What is meant by short-circuited? 

A. A short circuit means that the current, instead of going 
through its regular course , is carried to ground through a shorter 
pathway on account of the lessening of resistance. 

Q. Where is No. i motor located relative to end of car? 

A. No. i motor is always termed as being the motor nearest 
the fuse box. 

Q. Where is No. 2 motor located? 

A. Motor 2 is always termed as being the motor farthest 
from the fuse box. 

Q. How is No. 1 motor cut out in a G. E. controller? 

A. By throwing up the left-hand switch in controller. 

Q. How is No. 2 motor cut out in a G. E. controller? 

A. By throwing up the right-hand switch. 

Q. How is No. 1 motor cut out in a Westinghouse 28-A 
controller? 

A. By placing the handle of the No. 1 cut-out plug in a 
vertical position in both controllers. The No. 1 cut-out plug 
is the bottom one. 


215 

Q. How is No. 2 motor cut out in a Westinghouse 28-A 
controller? 

A. By placing the handle of the No. 2 cut-out plug in a 
vertical position in the controller that is being operated at the time. 
The No. 2 cut-out plug is the top one. 

Q. What precautions are necessary before cutting out a 
motor? 

A. Always throw off the overhead switch or circuit-breaker. 
This should also be done when inserting a fuse. 

Q. Why is it injurious to the motors to run the car with 
the power on and brakes partly set? 

A. Because it heats the armatures and fields and destroys 
the insulation. 

Q. How does heating destroy the armature and field-coil 
insulation? 

A. By carbonization. 

Q. What defect is liable to be caused by carbonized insula¬ 
tion of armature or field coils? 

A. A short circuit , or ground , caused by the layers of the coils 
of wire coming in metallic connection with each other. 

Q. What is the result usually of running the car through 
water at an excessive rate of speed with the power on? 

A. It is liable to produce short circuits in the motor with 
armature , field coils or brush-holder yokes , also a possibility of 
producing short circuits in resistance coils. 

Q. What is meant by controller interlocking device? 

A. A controller interlocking device is a mechanical arrange¬ 
ment whereby the controlling cylinder is prevented from being 
operated when the reverse handle is in the center; also reverse 


2l6 


cylinder is prevented from being thrown in either direction when 
controlling cylinder is placed in circuit or connection. 

Q. What systems are equipped with this device? 

A. General Electric and Westinghouse principally. 

Q. Which wiper is the trolley wiper in a G. E. controller? 

A. The one at the top of the wiper board of controller. 

Q. Which wiper is the trolley wiper in a Westinghouse 
28-A controller? 

A. The one at the top of the controller. 

Q. Which wiper is the No. 19 in a G. E. controller? 

A. On a G. E. type K, or K-i controller, the No. 19 
wiper is the fifth wiper down from the top. On a type K-2 G. E. 
controller, the No. 19 wiper is the sixth one down from the top 
of the controller. On a G. E. type K- 10, K-11, or K-12, the 
No. 19 wiper is the seventh wiper down from the top of the 
controller. 

Q. Which is the No. 15 wiper in a G. E. controller? 

A. On a G. E. type K or K-i controller, the No. 15 wiper 
is the sixth wiper down from the top of the controller. 

On the type K-2, the No. 15 is the seventh wiper down from 
the lop of the controller. 

On the type K- 10, K-11, or K-12, the No. 15 is the eighth 
wiper down from the top of the controller. 

Q. Which wiper is the E-i in a G. E. controller? 

A. On a G. E. type K, or K-i, the wipers marked E-i are 
the eighth and ninth wipers down from the top of the controller. 

On a K-2, K- 10, K-11, or K-12, the wipers marked E-i are 
the ninth and tenth down from the top of the controller. 


217 


Q. Which is the R-i wiper in a G. E. controller? 

A. The R-i wiper is the second wiper down from top of 
controller. This applies to all types of G. E. controllers. The 
R-2, R~3 j R-4, and R -5 wipers follow in numerical order. 

Q. What would be the result if a blow-out magnet coil in 
a controller became grounded? 

A. A grounded blow-out magnet coil in either controller will 
cause fuse in circuit to be blown when both overhead switches or 
circuit-breakers are thrown on to close the circuit , the controller 
cylinder being at off or normal position. 

Q. How would you run a car with a grounded blow-out 
magnet coil? 

A. By disconnecting the positive and negative wires of same 
and connecting together. This allows the blow-out magnet coil 
to be entirely out of circuit. 

Q. What is a blow-out magnet coil? 

A. A blow-out magnet coil is composed of a certain number 
of turns of insulated copper wire or ribbon wound on a core. 

Q. What is the office of a blow-out magnet coil in a con¬ 
troller? 

A. To excite what is known as the pole-piece for the purpose 
of producing magnetic lines of force , so as to break the arc when 
throwing the controller to the off position. 

Q. Why is it necessary to break the arc? 

A. To protect the controller from grounds or short circuits , 
which might be caused by an arc held in the controller. 

Q. What other precautions are taken to minimize the arc 
at contact wiper point? 


2l8 


A. Controllers are also equipped with what is known as arc 
deflectors or barriers, which are placed between each contact 
wiper to prevent an arc being blown from one contact wiper to 
another, and on G. E. controllers are attached to the swinging 
pole-piece of the controller. 

Q. Why is it injurious to apply the power too abruptly? 

A. When the power is applied too abruptly it allows a rush 
of current to motor terminals and is liable to produce short cir¬ 
cuits in motors, either on brush-holder yoke or armature circuits. 
There is also a possibility, with the aforesaid defects, of a current 
backing up in the controller and causing short circuits or grounds. 
In regard to mechanical defects liable to result from a too rapid 
application of the power there is a possibility of stripping the 
gears and pinions. 

Q. What is meant by an emergency stop with controller? 

A. By an emergency stop is meant to make a stop with the 
controller irrespective of the power in the line or brakes on car. 

Q. How is the stop made? 

A. By throwing to off position the overhead switch, then 
throwing the reverse handle in the opposite direction from which 
the car is proceeding arid then throwing the controller cylinder 
handle to the last parallel position, allowing it to remain there 
until the effect is produced. 


219 


GENERAL RULES* 

1. Knowledge of Rides. Conductors and motormen are required to be 
familiar with the rules, and with every special order issued. The bulletin 
board must be examined daily for special orders. Employment by the 
Company binds the employe to comply with the rules and regulations, and 
ignorance thereof will not be accepted as an excuse for negligence or omis¬ 
sion of duty. If in doubt as to the exact meaning of any rule or special 
order, application must be made to the proper authority for information 
and instruction. 

In addition to these rules, special orders will be issued from time to 
time; such orders, when issued by proper authority, whether in conflict 
with these rules or not, must be obeyed while in force. 

i a. Conflicting Rules. All regulations or orders now in force, contrary 
to those herein contained, are hereby rescinded. 

ib. Discretion. In all matters not covered by these rules, or special or¬ 
ders, employes are expected to use discretion and judgment. 

2. Report for Duty. Regular conductors and motormen must report 
for duty ten minutes before leaving time for their first trip, or if for any 
good reason unable to so report, must give notice at least ten minutes 
before such leaving time. 

Extra men must report at such time as ordered, or must give notice 
at least ten minutes before such time. They must not absent themselves 
after answering roll-call without permission. 

2 a. Sick-Reports. Every conductor or motorman reporting sick or excused 
must report for work within one week thereafter, or send to the Division Gen¬ 
eral Foreman a sufficient reason for longer absence; otherwise his car will be 
given away and his name will be dropped from the roll. He must also report 
weekly while away. This rule does not apply in case an employe is excused 
for a definite time longer than one week. 

* The rules in this book printed in larger type , are those which have 
been approved as standard by the Street Railway Association of the State of 
New York. 

Additional rules for the guidance of employes operating surface cars in 
New York City have been rendered necessary by the existing local condi¬ 
tions. Such rules are printed in smaller type. 


220 


3- Personal Appearance. Conductors and motormen must report for 
duty clothed in full regulation uniform, and must be clean and neat in 
appearance. 

3a. Badge and Buttons. The official badge and regulation buttons will be 
furnished by the Company, and are always to remain its property. They 
are official tokens that the wearer is in the employ of the Company, and must 
never be allowed out of the possession of the employe to whom issued. If 
lost, such loss must be promptly reported at the office. 

Badge must be shown and badge number given verbally on the request 
of a passenger at any time. 

4. Politeness. Conductors and motormen must treat all passengers 
with politeness, avoid difficulty, and exercise patience, forbearance, and 
self-control, under all conditions. They must not make threatening ges¬ 
tures or use loud, uncivil, indecent, or profane language, even under the 
greatest provocation. 

5. Habits and Personal Conduct. The following acts are prohibited: 

5 a. Drinking intoxicating liquors of any kind while on duty. 

5 b. Entering any place where the same is sold as a beverage while in 
uniform or while on duty, except in case of necessity. 

5c. Constant frequenting of drinking places. 

5 d. Carrying intoxicating drink about the person while on duty. 

5^. Carrying intoxicating drinks on the Company’s premises at any time. 

5/. Indulging to excess in intoxicating liquors at any time. 

5 g. Gambling in any form, including the laying of bets and playing 
raffles while upon the premises of the Company. 

$h. Smoking tobacco while on duty. 

5 i. Smoking tobacco while off duty in any part of the Company’s 
buildings, except in the conductors’ or motormen’s room. 

5 j. Reading books or newspapers while on duty. 

6. Responsibility. The motorman is in charge of the car, and is held 
responsible — 

(1) For the safe running of the car. 

(2) For the proper operation of the car and its machinery. 

(3) For running car according to schedule. 


221 


The conductor is in charge of the passengers on the car and is held re- 
responsible — 

(1) For the safety and convenience of the passengers. 

(2) For the collection and proper accounting of fares. 

7. Talking to Motorman. Motormen while operating cars are per¬ 
mitted to answer questions of superior officers, and to give proper instruc¬ 
tions to students only. All other conversation with motormen while car 
is in motion is forbidden. 

8. Safety. The safety of passengers is the first consideration. All 
employes are required to exercise constant care to prevent injury to 
persons or property, and in all cases of doubt take the safe side. 

9. Warning to Passengers. Conductors and motormen must, in a 
polite way, endeavor to keep people from jumping on or off cars while in 
motion. 

If persons attempt to get on or off the car while it is moving, they should 
be notified politely to wait until the car stops. If the passengers are leav¬ 
ing while another car is approaching from the opposite direction, they 
should be courteously warned to look out for the car on the other track. 

9 a. In approaching curves conductors must always give the warning, 
“Hold fast.” 

10. Standing on Stefs. Do not permit any one to stand on the 
steps or buffers. Passengers should be fully inside of car before the sig¬ 
nal is given to start. 

10a. The starting signal should not be given before passengers are fully 
off the step or running board of car. 

11. Stealing Rides. Any person caught stealing a ride on a car must 
never be pushed therefrom while it is in motion. 

12. 

12a. Ejectments. No passenger shall be forcibly ejected from a car for 
any cause whatsoever without order of an Inspector, Starter or official of the Com¬ 
pany, unless the conduct of the passenger is dangerous or grossly offensive. 
In such case the fare must be returned to the passenger, and the ejectment 
made by the conductor with the assistance of the motorman after the car has 
been brought to a stop, using only such force as is sufficient to expel the offend¬ 
ing passenger, with a reasonable regard for his personal safety. If a police 


222 


officer is at hand, the ejectment should be made in his presence, but under no 
circumstances must the offending passenger be arrested unless ordered by an 
Inspector or any official of the Company. 

13. Where to Eject. Any person ejected from a car must be put off 
at a regular stopping place. 

No passenger will be put off at a point where likely to be exposed to 
danger. 

Particular attention must be paid to this rule during bad and inclem¬ 
ent weather, late at night, or when a passenger is intoxicated. 

14. Intoxication. No passenger will be ejected from a car for mere 
intoxication, unless said passenger becomes dangerous or offensive; such 
passenger must then be ejected with great care and must be guided until 
free from probable injury. 

15. Run on Time. Cars must never be run ahead of schedule time, 
but must pass time points and leave terminals promptly on time, unless 
unavoidably delayed. 

15a. Should the motorman be unavoidably detained, he must not at¬ 
tempt to make up the time by reckless running. 

Motormen must not loaf because there are cars close ahead, unless there 
are no cars close behind. 

They will not be held for polling, unless they are running close to leader 
and leaving the road bare behind. 

When a road is not running on schedule time, motormen must divide their 
headway as the conditions demand. 

16. Steam Railroad Crossings. Car must be brought to a full stop at 
a safe distance, approaching steam railroad crossings at grade, and motor- 
man must not proceed until conductor has gone ahead to the center of 
crossing, looked both ways, and given the come ahead signal. Before 
starting, the motorman will look back to see that no passengers are get¬ 
ting on or off; and in no case proceed, even after conductor’s signal, until 
he has also examined the crossing and satisfied himself that steams cars 
are not approaching. 

When there is more than one track the conductor must remain in 
advance of the car until the last track is reached. 

After boarding car, conductor will give go ahead signal to notify 


223 


motorman that he is aboard. Motorman is forbidden to proceed with¬ 
out this signal. 

Where crossing is protected by derail, interlocking plant, or flagmen 
(employed by the Company) this rule does not apply, special instructions 
being issued to govern in such cases. 

1 6a. Street Railway Crossings. Motormen, before crossing the tracks 
of any intersecting line, must bring the car to a full stop at the near crosswalk, 
see that the way is clear, and cross such tracks at reduced speed. 

When there is a flagman or regularly assigned police officer stationed at 
crossing, motormen will be governed entirely by his signals, and need not 
come to a full stop when they have signal to come ahead. 

17 - 

18. Reporting Defects. Conductors and motormen will report to Divi¬ 
sion General Foreman, Inspector, or Starter any defect in car, track, or 
channel rail, which needs immediate attention. 

1 8a. Motormen must report on the car-house sheet at the Depot the con¬ 
dition of every car operated by them during the day. 

1 8b. Defective Channel Rails. In case a car becomes disabled and it 
appears that shoes are torn off, the motorman must warn his follower to 
run carefully over spot where he lost power, or place where he believes the 
damage occurred. If two cars lose power in succession the follower must be 
warned, and must not attempt to proceed until the channel rails have been 
examined. 

In all such cases in which there is no Inspector present an emergency 
wagon must be called. 

19. Disabled Cars. The motorman or conductor of any disabled car, 
withdrawn from the main track, must remain with the car until relieved 
by proper authority. 

19a. When a car becomes disabled, the passengers must be transferred 
to the following car if there is room in that car to accommodate them, and 
the two cars must then be coupled together and the disabled car sent to Depot. 

If the following car is crowded, then the passengers must be allowed to 
remain in the disabled car until there is room in the other car, when they must 
be transferred to that car. 

19 b. If any part of the car commences to smoke or burn, the passengers 
must be immediately transferred, as quietly as possible, to another car or to 
the street without being notified that the car is on fire, when the plow leads 
must be disconnected and water or sand used to extinguish the fire; water 
must not be used until the plow leads have been disconnected. 

If the fire cannot be extinguished with the material at hand, the Fire De¬ 
partment should be called. 


224 


19c. In case a car is disabled and is being pushed by follower, the motor- 
man of the live car must not start until he receives signals from the front and 
rear. Motorman operating disabled car must remain in his place, sounding 
the gong, and, when necessary to stop, give one tap of the bell, at the same time 
applying the brakes. In all such cases great care must be used, and the cars 
must move at slow speed. In no case must a motorman push more than two 
disabled cars without orders from an Inspector or some person in authority. 

19 d. When the disabled car is being pulled or when two cars are coupled 
for running, the signal for starting must first be given by the conductor on the 
rear car and repeated by the conductor on the forward car, each conductor 
being careful not to give the signal when passengers are boarding or leaving 
car. 


20. Render Assistance. In case of accident, however slight, to persons 
or property, in connection with or near any car, the motorman and con¬ 
ductor in charge of the same will render all assistance necessary and 
practicable. In no case will they leave injured persons without first 
having seen that they are cared for. 

21. 

22. 

23. Reports to be Full and Complete. A full and complete report of 
every accident, no matter how trivial, and whether occurring on or near 
the car, must be made by the conductor. Accidents sometimes consid¬ 
ered as not worth reporting are often the most serious, troublesome, and 
expensive. 

The conductor will obtain the name and residence in full of all 
witnesses on or near the car. 

The motorman will assist the conductor in securing the names of 
witnesses whenever practicable, and will be held responsible for any neg¬ 
lect to render assistance. 

In all cases full facts must be obtained and stated in the reports as 
follows: 

The date, exact time, exact place, run and car number, and the direc¬ 
tion in which the car was moving, the nature of the accident or collision, 
and the cause of its occurrence. 

The full name and address of the person injured or whose vehicle 
was in collision (giving the name of both the driver and the owner of the 
vehicle). 


225 


Ascertain the extent of injuries or damage, if any, before leaving the 
spot. 

In case there has been an accident on the car, and the conductors 
change ahead, the conductor taking car on which the accident happened 
must secure the names of witnesses, as above. 

In case a person is struck by a car after passing around the rear of a 
passing or standing car, the number of each car must be obtained, and both 
crews must report the accident. 

If an accident is caused by any defect or damaged condition of car, 
conductor must report the same and its cause. 

Accidents to employes will be reported the same as accidents to pas¬ 
sengers. 

Any trouble or disturbance of a boisterous or quarrelsome character 
which occurs on a car, or the ejectment of a person from a car, will be 
reported as an accident. 

24. Report Accidents to Inspectors. Conductors and motormen will 
make a verbal report to the first Inspector or official of the Company 
they meet of any accident, blockade, or mishap of any kind. 

25. Give Information to Proper Persons. No employe shall, under any 
circumstances, give any information whatever concerning any accident, 
delay, blockade, or mishap of any kind to any person except to a properly 
authorized representative of the Company. 

25 a. Under no circumstances should the names of witnesses in accident 
cases be given to police officers. 

25 b. Conductors may, however, advise passengers as to the general causes 
of any blockade and of its probable duration. 

26. 

26a. Telephone Information. In case of a serious blockade, where assist¬ 
ance is required to get cars moving, conductor of car first in block must, in 
the absence of any Inspector or official, telephone at once to Superintendent 
and give notice and particulars of detention. Expense of telephone message 
will be refunded upon application at the Division office. 

In all cases of collision between cars, and all other cases in which there 
is serious personal injury, information must be telephoned immediately to 
the Report Clerk , unless there is an Inspector present. If in doubt as to the 
seriousness of the accident, the information must be telephoned. 


2j. Starling Cars after Blockade. In the event of a blockade of cars 
from any cause, the cars in such blockade must not all be started at one 
time, but singly and at such intervals as will not burden the feeder line. 

28. Bell Signals. From conductor to motorman, to be given on motor- 
man’s signal bell: 

1 Bell — “Stop at next crossing or station.” 

2 Bells — “Go ahead.” 

3 Bells — “Stop immediately.” 

4 Bells — Given when car is standing — “Back car slowly.” 

From motorman to conductor, to be given on conductor’s signal bell: 

1 Bell — “Come ahead.” 

2 Bells — Danger signal to the conductor. 

3 Bells — “Set rear brake.” 

4 Bells — Signal to Conductor that motorman desires to back the 

car. 

5 — 

Whenever a car in service is stopped for any cause except to take on 
or let off passengers, the motorman will, as soon as he is ready to go for¬ 
ward, give two taps of the gong; after which, if the conductor is ready to 
proceed, he will give the “Go ahead” signal. 

The motorman will answer the signal to stop from conductor by one 
loud tap of gong; and two loud taps of gong after receiving the signal to 
go ahead. 

If unable to proceed immediately upon receipt of signal, motorman 
will wait for another “Go ahead” signal before starting the car. 

When the car is standing, and motorman desires to back, for any rea¬ 
son, he will give the conductor four bells, but must not move the car until 
the conductor has answered with four bells to signify — “All is clear 
behind.” 

28a. When the car has been stopped to take on or let off passengers, 
motorman must not sound gong to hurry conductor. 

28 b. When backing car power must be applied only to the second notch. 

28c. Motorman must give one tap on conductor’s signal bell for each 
person boarding car by front platform. These last are to be given slowly to 
avoid confusion. 


227 


2g. Signals before Passing Obstructions near Track. Before passing 
any vehicle or obstruction close to the track, where passengers or conduc¬ 
tor are liable to be injured while standing on the step of an open car, motor- 
man must give two taps of signal bell as a warning, and must bring his car 
to a full stop before passing vehicle or obstruction unless he has received 
GO AHEAD signal from the conductor indicating that all is clear. Great 
care must be exercised in passing over all excavations, warning workmen 
of the approach of car by repeatedly sounding gong, car to be under full 
control. Where excavations are near regular stopping place, car should 
be run clear thereof before stopped. 

30. Starting. Motorman must never move car (whether stopped on 
signal or for any other reason) without signal from conductor, and then 
only when assured that no one is getting on or off front platform. 

Conductor must never give signal to start when passengers are getting 
on or off. 

Conductor must never give signal to back a car unless he is on rear 
platform and knows track is clear behind the car. 

30a. Conductor must not put his hands on the bell cord until passengers, 
if alighting, are on the street and clear of the car; or, if boarding, are upon 
the body of an open car or on the platform of a box car. 

30 b. Conductor must give the motorman three bells as signal to stop 
immediately whenever a further backward movement of the car is likely to 
result in injury to pedestrians or a collision with another car or vehicle. 

30c. Motorman must start car slowly, so as to avoid jerking. He must 
turn on power one notch at a time, taking care to strike each notch squarely, 
and making a distinct stop on each notch, never skipping a notch and never 
running between notches. Sudden application of power is liable to blow cir¬ 
cuit-breakers or fuses. Controller must never be thrown on last point if car 
does not start from preceding points. 

The .controller must never be thrown from a higher to a lower notch. 

Controller must never be held for any length of time on any point except 
the first and second running positions. 

If necessary to run slower than first running position speed, power must 
be thrown on and off, and not be taken continuously from a low^er notch than 
that of the first running position. 

31. Danger Signals. Red lights or flags indicate danger, and when 
placed on the track, cars must come to a full stop until such signal is 
removed. 


228 


32. Leaving Car. When necessary for conductor to leave his car he 
must notify the motorman to protect passengers and car. Should pas¬ 
sengers board car during absence of conductor, motorman will notify con¬ 
ductor of the number and location of such passengers upon his return. 

Cars in commission must not be left unprotected; either conductor 
or motorman always remaining in charge. 

33. Responsibility 0 / Damages. Employes will be held responsible for 
any damages caused by their neglect or carelessness or by disobedience of 
rules. 

34. Transjer Point Meetings. Motormen and conductors will be held 
equally responsible for leaving a transfer point so quickly as to prevent 
the transfer of passengers from an approaching car on a connecting line. 

35. Hearing by Superintendent. A hearing will be given by the Super¬ 
intendent to every employe who desires to complain. Reports or sugges¬ 
tions for the betterment of the service will always receive consideration. 

36. Persons Allowed to Ride on Front Platforms: 

(a) General Officers, Superintendents, Division General Foreman, In¬ 
spectors and Starters. 

(b) Persons holding written orders signed by the President, Vice-Presi¬ 
dent or General Manager. 

(c) Employes of the Engineering Departments with badges displayed 
and wearing soiled clothing may ride on front platform of closed cars, but no 
more than two will be permitted to so ride at one time, unless cars are on long 
headway. 

(d) Employes detailed by the Superintendents or Instruction Depart¬ 
ment for the purpose of learning to operate the car. 

37. Delay by Teamsters. In case the driver of any vehicle refuses to pull 
off track, where it is possible to do so, but persists in standing so as to block 
track, or in driving so slowly as to keep the car back, conductor must call upon 
the first policeman to compel such vehicle to turn out. If the officer should 
refuse to comply, conductor must note his badge number and report same at 
office. 

38. Disputes. Motorman must not shout or yell at teams or persons, nor, 
under any circumstances, use profane or vulgar language. They must not 
enter into any dispute or altercation with teamsters or other persons. 

39. Newspapers. Pedlers and newsboys must not be allowed to sell 
merchandise or papers on cars. 

40. Advertising Racks. Employes are forbidden to place newspapers, 
books, or any other articles in the racks reserved for advertising cards. 




229 


41. Changing Cars on the Road. In the event of a motorman or conduc¬ 
tor being taken sick, or being obliged to leave car for any reason, and in order 
to keep the road open it is necessary to change ahead, both conductor and 
motorman of the following car of the same line must take charge of the car 
ahead. The motorman or conductor of the crew which has been separated 
must remain at the place where the crews are changing ahead, until an In¬ 
spector or another conductor or motorman arrives to complete the crew, and 
then take the last car which has been left without a crew. 

When crews change ahead on the road, the motorman leaving car must 
notify motorman taking his place of any defect in car equipment which may 
exist at such time. 

42. Conductor in charge of Car. The conductor is in charge of car, and 
the motorman is subject to his orders when they do not conflict with these 
rules or with special orders. 

Should either motorman or conductor show a disposition to run car ahead, 
or to loaf, the other must make report to proper authority, otherwise he will 
be held equally responsible. 

43. Electric Heating Apparatus. Conductors and motormen must not 
change the position of the switch regulating the electric heaters. If the heat is 
on or off contrary to orders, this fact must be reported to the first inspector or 
starter that is met on the road. 

44. Fenders. A car must never go into or out of a house with fender low¬ 
ered. Both fenders must be raised and properly strapped to the dash, other¬ 
wise they will be likely to strike the side of the door. 

When lowering the fender when it is up against the dash, the strap must 
be unfastened and the fender lowered to the proper position by hand, taking 
hold of same in center (never at the end or corner), the motorman standing 
on the ground at the time. If the fender is dropped while motorman is stand¬ 
ing on the platform, it is liable to be broken or the intermediates bent. 

45. Watches. Conductors and motormen must be provided with watches 
which are in good running order and regulated daily by the Depot clock. 

46. Sand Car. When a sand car is sent out over a line, sand must be used 
only on that part of the line where the condition of the rail requires it. 

If the crew in charge of a sand car are in doubt about sanding certain 
portions of the rail they should obtain definite instructions from starters or 
Inspectors. 

47. Matches. To lessen danger of fire, no matches shall be kept in lockers. 

48. Leaves of Absence. Leaves of absence will be granted only on ac¬ 
count of illness, or for rest or recreation. No employe will be excused from 
duty to engage in other occupation or business, nor will his position be held 
open while so engaged. 

49. Collections. The collection of money for any purpose, or the solicita¬ 
tion of advertisements for programmes or contributions on behalf of any em¬ 
ploye or association of employes, is prohibited. 


230 


50. Assignment of Wages. Employes are forbidden to give an order on 
the Company, or assign their wages. They will be paid on the regular pay 
day, except in cases of dismissal. Those who wish to remain in the service 
of the Company must pay their lawful debts. 

51. Lost Articles. Any article left in the car must be turned in at the 
Division Office at the end of the trip, with the usual form filled out and 
attached to article in question. 

In all cases in which an article is found in the car by a passenger who 
refuses to turn it over to the conductor, a report containing the name and ad¬ 
dress of the finder and description of the article must be made to the Division 
General Foreman. 


RULES FOR CONDUCTORS 

101. Be on the Rear Platform. Remain on rear platform when not 
collecting fares, keeping a lookout for persons desiring to board car. Keep 
careful watch of passengers to observe requests to stop car. When stops 
are made at principal streets, places of amusement, churches, or at any 
point where a considerable number of passengers enter or leave the car, 
conductors should be on rear platform until such point is passed. 

101a. Conductors must remain on running board of open cars, standing 
opposite the second seat from rear, except when collecting fares. 

101 b. When car is going down a steep or dangerous grade, conductors 
should remain on rear platform and be ready to set rear brake if necessary. 

102. 

103. 

104. Route Signs. See that route signs are properly placed on each 
half trip. 

104a. Conductors should see that car is equipped with proper dash signs 
before leaving depot or terminal. 

105. Carrying Packages. Passengers must not be allowed to carry 
bulky or dangerous packages aboard cars. 

Do not in any way take possession of, or assume responsibility for, 
any package which a passenger may bring upon the car, excepting such 
articles as are to be turned in to the Lost Article Department. Do not 
hang nor allow articles to be hung on the brake handles. 

105a. When persons carrying packages present transfer tickets they must 
be allowed to ride, but the conductor must make a written report of the facts 


2 3 I 


to his Division General Foreman, the transfer ticket to be attached to said 
report. 

105 b. Baskets or bundles of soiled clothing will be carried only on the 
front platforms of cars. 

106. 

107. Keeping Gates Closed. Front and rear gates on closed cars on 
the side between the tracks must always be kept closed and securely fastened 
(when running on the road). On open cars the guard rails must be kept 
down on the side between the tracks. When gates or their fastenings are 
broken or out of order, prompt report must be made to Division General 
Foreman, Inspector, or Starter. 

108. Moving Forward. On closed cars when standing passengers 
crowd the rear door, request them to please step forward. 

109. Seating Passengers. Standing passengers should be directed to 
vacant seats; and an effort made to provide them with seats where possible. 

no. Assisting Passengers. Elderly and feeble persons, women and 
children should be given assistance getting on and off car when possible. 

in. Dogs in Cars. No dogs should be allowed on a car except such 
small dogs as can be carried in the laps of passengers. 

112. Spitting on Floor. No passenger will be ejected from a car for 
spitting on the floor. If a passenger violates the rule or law prohibiting 
spitting, the conductor will call the attention of the passenger to the law pro¬ 
hibiting such conduct, and endeavor to persuade the passenger to desist. 

113. Collection of Fares. Fares must be collected promptly after pas¬ 
senger has boarded car and immediately registered. When more than one 
person boards car at a time, the fares must be registered immediately 
in the presence of the passenger who paid them before any more fares 
are collected. 

114. Change. When necessary to give change, first register fare, and 
immediately thereafter give change. 

114a. When starting each trip conductors must have five dollars in change. 

If bills of five dollars denomination or over are offered in payment of fare, 
which conductors are unable to change, they must request the passenger to 
leave the car, but in no case must such a passenger be forcibly ejected for 


232 


refusing to comply. The facts in all such cases must be reported to the first 
Starter or Inspector seen. 

114&.. Conductors must not give more than five pennies to one person 
making change. Should a passenger object to receiving pennies, conductor 
must take them back and give other change. 

115. Register Rings. Be careful to see that register rings each fare 
and that dial shows it. 

116. Register Out of Order. In case the register gets out of order, stop 
using it, make report of fares on back of day card or on blanks supplied 
for that purpose, and report the fact to the first Inspector, or Starter, met on 
the road, and subsequently report the same to Division General Foreman. 

116a. In order to protect themselves from errors in forgetting to register, 
it is well for conductors to count their money at the beginning of each trip, and 
at the end of trip to turn in any surplus above what the register calls for, mak¬ 
ing note of same on back of day cards. 

117. Transfers in Blockades. In case any line is blocked, it is the de¬ 
sire of the Company to carry passengers to destination on other lines. 
Under such circumstances, conductors of parallel or intersecting lines 
will accept transfer tickets accordingly and will issue a transfer on a trans¬ 
fer if necessary. They will also accept transfer passengers without tickets 
on orders from any Inspectors or authorized representative of the Com¬ 
pany making report of same on the back of day card. 

117a. Conductors on the line which has been blocked must not issue 
transfer tickets at unusual points unless ordered to do so by an Inspector or 
other official of the Company. 

118. Refusing to pay Fare .— Transfers. When a passenger refuses to 
pay fare or presents a defective transfer or ticket, upon which, in the judg¬ 
ment of the conductor, the passenger is not entitled to ride, the conductor must 
secure the names of as many witnesses to the facts as is possible, whereupon 
the car must be stopped and the passenger requested to leave. 

If the passenger fails to comply with such request, the facts of the case 
must be brought to the attention of the first Inspector, Starter or official of the 
Company who is met, and the conductor must act according to instructions 
received from such Inspector, Starter or official. In all cases the passenger 
must be given the benefit of any doubt. 

When a passenger who refuses to pay fare requests to be allowed to leave 
the car, the car must be stopped and the person permitted to alight. 

118a. Get Witnesses. In all cases of ejectment, always get the names of 
witnesses, and make report giving all the circumstances, the same as in case 
of accident. 


2 33 


119. Return of Fare. Should conductor for any reason return a fare to 
a passenger, or by error register more fares than collected, he must not attempt 
to recover same by omitting to register fares subsequently collected. Conduc¬ 
tor should report matter at the office, when money will be refunded. 

120. Trayisportation of Employes. Employes in uniform with badge dis¬ 
played, or wearing working clothes (if not soiled) with badge in sight, will 
be allowed to ride free to and from work upon any of the cars of this Company. 
Such employes must ride inside of the cars when there is room, but must not 
occupy a seat while other passengers stand, nor must they converse with men 
in charge of the car. Not more than two such employes will be allowed to ride 
on any one car, except during the early morning or late at night when cars are 
on long headway, and in such event not enough employes to crowd the car 
will be allowed to board same. Employes of the Engineering Departments 
wearing soiled clothing will not be allowed on the rear platform or inside of 
closed cars, but may ride on the front platform thereof, as provided by Rule 
36c. On open cars such employes may ride only upon the rear platform. 

121. Free Passengers. Children under four years of age will be carried 
free when accompanied by an older person. 

Police officers and firemen, in uniform, will be carried free, not more than 
two on any one car. All such officers in addition to two must pay fare. 

122. Information to Passengers. Conductors are expected to be familiar 
with principal points along their route, so as to give information to passengers 
about streets, parks, connecting or intersecting railroad lines, depots, ferries, 
public buildings, large stores, hotels, theaters, etc. 

Conductors on the longitudinal lines must announce distinctly the name 
of at least every fifth intersecting street and on the crosstown lines the name 
of every intersecting street. They must call out the names of ferries, theaters, 
important public buildings and, on arriving at transfer stations, the lines to 
which transfers are issued. 

When on the stand at terminals, and when approaching passengers, con¬ 
ductors must announce the route or destination of car. 

Passengers notifying conductor to be let off at some point ahead should 
be requested to signal conductor just before arriving at the desired street. 

123. Passengers Ring Bell. Passengers have a right to ring the bell to 
stop the car, and conductors should bear this in mind. They must, however, 
try in a polite way to discourage passengers from doing so. 

124. Smoking on Cars. Smoking or carrying lighted cigars, cigarettes 
or pipes must not be allowed on any part of box cars, but may be permitted on 
four rear seats only of open cars, and on open section of combination cars. 

125. Disabled Motor man. In case any accident disables motorman while 
the car is in motion, the conductor must at once throw off overhead switch and 
apply rear brake to stop car. 

126. Care of Cars. Conductors must make a written report to the Division 
Genera] Foreman of any cars not in first-class condition for service. Careful 


234 


inspection must be made of doors, windows, lamps, and all other parts of car, 
to see that same are in proper condition. 

Conductors must keep papers and rubbish picked up, lights burning after 
dark, cars properly ventilated and curtains or blinds raised or lowered to give 
proper shade from sun. At the end of route, where necessary, they must 
change gates, and run numbers, assist motormen in changing pins, turn seats 
on open cars, change signs, etc. In general, they must see that cars are in 
good order, neat and clean. In cold w r eather, front doors and windows must 
be kept closed and rear doors also as much as possible. 

Care must be taken to regulate ventilators according to number of pas¬ 
sengers and condition of the weather, so that the air in car may be kept cool 
and pure. An endeavor should be made to comply with all reasonable de¬ 
mands from passengers regarding doors, windows, curtains, and ventilators. 
During cold weather, as a rule, one ventilator at least should be kept open and 
adjusted so that the opening is toward the rear of the car. 


RULES FOR MOTORMEN 

201. Stopping for Passengers. Keep a careful lookout on both sides 
of the street and bring the car to a full stop for every person who signals, 
except that when a car has considerable headway, is overcrowded, and 
another car follows within the same block (or 200 feet) passengers should 
be requested to take the following car. 

*********** 

Do not stop cars so as to block cross-streets and crosswalks. 

201 a. Cars wall stop on signal only, at farther crossing of street inter¬ 
sections, in front of places of amusement, and in the middle of long blocks. 

Cars must stop without signal at all transfer points and at points as pro¬ 
vided in special orders. 

202. Churches and Hospitals. When passing a church during the 
hours of service, and at all times when passing a hospital, run slowly and 
do not ring the gong unless necessary. 

202 a. Passing Schools. Cars must be run slowly and with great care, and 
gong sounded, in the vicinity of schools where there are children in the street. 

202 h. Excavations. In passing excavations or places where men are work¬ 
ing near tracks, gong must be sounded and speed reduced. 

203. Persons between Cars. Cars moving in opposite directions 
must not pass at points where persons are standing between the tracks, 





235 


but must be operated so as not to occupy both tracks at such point 
simultaneously. 

203a. Rule 203 does not apply to the case of police officers detailed at 
crossings. 

203&. Street Sweepers. In passing laborers at work in the streets, gong 
must be sounded and car kept under control. 

204. Passing Standing Cars. When passing standing cars, gong must 
be rung and car brought to slow speed. 

205. Passing Vehicles. Motormen are cautioned to exercise great 
care when a vehicle is passing alongside of track ahead of car. Ring the 
gong vigorously to attract the attention of the person driving, as a warn¬ 
ing not to pull in ahead of car; and run cautiously until the vehicle is 
passed in safety. 

206. Fire Apparatus. When any fire department vehicles are observed 
approaching from any direction, cars must be stopped until such vehicles 
have passed. 

206 a. The emergency wagons of the Company must always be given the 
right of way. 

207. Ambulances and Police Patrol. Ambulances and police patrol 
must be allowed the right of way, and when approaching or passing, cars 
must be kept under control to avoid collision. 

208. Passing Cars. Never run against switch point of crossover when 
meeting a car, but slacken speed sufficiently to allow the car moving in 
the opposite direction to pass before striking switch point. 

This rule refers particularly to all crossovers having switch points 
facing opposite to the direction in which the car is moving. 

208a. Switches. Motormen must see that all rail and slot switches are 
properly set before passing them, coming to a full stop, if necessary. They 
must run at slow speed over all switches, so that if a switch should be suddenly 
thrown they can stop car promptly. 

209. Reversing Cars. Never use the reversing lever to stop car except 
in a case wherein the brake fails to work properly. 

Do not reverse the power when the brake is set, but release the brake 
and reverse the power simultaneously, and, when the reverse lever is 


2 3 6 


thrown in position, apply the current one point at a time, otherwise the 
fuse will melt or the breaker will release. Sand should be used when 
making an emergency stop. 

210. Leaving Car. Never leave platform of car without taking con¬ 
troller and reverse handle, throwing off the overhead switch and apply¬ 
ing brake. Be careful to see that the hands point to the “off” mark 
before taking off controller handle. Before leaving car at any point, set 
hand brake sufficiently to prevent car from drifting. 

211. Throwing Overhead Switches. An overhead switch must never 
be thrown until power is turned entirely off, except in case controller 
cylinder fails to turn when power is on. It must be thrown by hand only. 

21 ia. Repairs. Before attempting any repairs on car, ground switches 
must be thrown. 

21 ib. Controller Out of Order. In case the controller is out of order, and 
the controller handle cannot be turned to the “off” point, the overhead switch 
should be thrown. 

212. Power off Line. When the power leaves the line, the controller 
must be shut off, the overhead switch thrown, and the car brought to a 
stop; the light switch must then be turned on and the car started only 
when the lights burn brightly. 

213. Economical Use of Current. In order to effect an economical use 
of the electric current, it is necessary that the continuous movements of 
starting and increasing speed should be made gradually. In starting a 
car, let it run until the maximum speed of each notch has been attained 
before moving handle to the next notch. 

Do not apply brakes when the current is on. 

Do not apply current when brakes are applied. 

Do not allow the current to remain on when car is going down grade, 
or when passing over section-breakers. Endeavor to run car with the least 
amount of current, allowing the car to drift without the use of the current 
when it can be done without falling behind time. 

A great amount of power can be saved by using judgment and dis¬ 
cretion in approaching stopping places and switches by shutting off the 
power, so as to allow the car to drift to the stopping place or switch with¬ 
out a too vigorous use of the brake. 


237 


214. Release Brakes before Stop. When brakes are set to make a stop 
they should always be released, or nearly so, just before the car comes to 
a standstill. 

215. Water on Track. When there is water on the track run the car 
very slowly, drifting without use of power whenever possible. 

216. Sanded Rails. Never run on freshly sanded rail with brakes 
full on except to prevent an accident. On cars provided with sand boxes, 
in case of slippery rail, always sand the track for a short distance before 
applying the brakes. 

217. Spinning of Wheels. Care must be taken, particularly during 
snowstorms, to avoid spinning of the wheels with no forward or backward 
movement of the car. 

217a. When wheels begin spinning, the motorman must shut off power 
immediately and turn it on again slowly. 

218. Slippery rail. On a slippery rail do not allow wheels to slide; 
as soon as wheels commence to slide, the brake must be released and 
reset. 

Extreme caution must be used to keep car under full control approach¬ 
ing all intersections, junctions, railroad crossings and prominent drive¬ 
ways, being very careful when approaching wagons and other cars, dis¬ 
regarding schedule if necessary. 

219. Do Not Oil Car. Do not oil or grease any part of car. 

220. Rounding Curves. Power must be shut off and brake applied on 
approaching all curves, allowing the car to enter the curve on its own momen¬ 
tum with brake partly on. Before movement is lost brake should be released 
and power applied. 

A car must never be stopped on a curve except to avoid accident. 

221. Power Off at Breaks. At points where there is a break in under¬ 
ground conductor, as indicated by marks on the surface of the street, whether 
at intersections, curves, or on the straight rail, car must be slowed to one-quarter 
speed and power be shut off, when the front of car reaches the first mark, and 
thrown on again when front of car reaches second mark. 

222. Changing Ends. When changing ends at terminals, motormen must 
not pass through car. 

223. Place for Oil Coat. Overcoats and oil coats must not be hung across 
the front dash, nor on front body of car. They must be either laid on front 


238 

platform or neatly folded and hung in hand-rail against body of car on left- 
hand side. 

224. Terminals. Motormen must reduce speed when running into ter¬ 
minals to a rate just sufficient to carry car into terminal. 

Cars must not be run closer than 20 feet from their leader at terminals. 
(Exception to the above rule may be made by Division General Foreman.) 

225. No Unauthorized Person to Run Cars. Motormen must not allow 
any person to run their cars, except men placed there for instruction, or some 
Inspector or duly authorized officer of the Company, known to the motorman 
to be such. Conductors must not be allowed to run cars. Motormen who 
have on their car and in their charge learners breaking in must, under no 
circumstances, allow such learners to handle car except when the regular motor- 
man is at his side ready to take the brake or controller in an instant, to pre¬ 
vent accident. 

226. Knowledge of Electrical Equipment. Motormen are expected to ac¬ 
quaint themselves with the mechanical and electrical equipment of cars, in 
order that they may be enabled to cut out a motor, replace a fuse, reset a cir¬ 
cuit-breaker, or make slight repairs, if necessary. 

Motormen should familiarize themselves with the sound made by the car 
when running, and, if any unusual sound is noticed, should endeavor to find 
the cause and report it. They should observe carefully whether the car takes 
its natural speed on all positions of the controller, and, if not, report the fact. 

They should apply to proper authority for instructions in any matter that 
they do not thoroughly understand. 

ACCIDENTS 

Accidents in which persons are hurt or property destroyed 
or injured are a serious matter to the motorman and the com¬ 
pany, no matter how slight the injury. It is a matter of rec¬ 
ord that designing persons have been known deliberately to 
place themselves or their property where it could be injured, 
for the sake of getting money from the corporation. If a dog 
is killed by the railroad company it is immediately worth five 
hundred dollars, though it might have been valued at perhaps 
five dollars before the accident. 

In any accident, the suits growing out of it will certainly 
cost the company a lot of money, while if the persons are killed 
or injured the motorman himself may be called upon to defend 


239 


a criminal suit. On the other hand, in the case of every acci¬ 
dent the company makes a complete investigation, and the 
motorman who costs them a large sum for a careless accident 
is pretty sure to get his walking papers and it is perfectly right 
that he should. 

The conductor is responsible for the report to the company 
and the securing of witnesses, but for his own protection the 
motorman should see that all the points of importance are put 
into the report. He should inform the conductor of all that 
he can in regard to the accident and help him in getting the 
necessary witnesses. 

In case there is any necessity of raising the car to release 
any one who might be wedged in under it, the motorman should 
so thoroughly understand the car that he can direct the work 
and prevent accidents to others who are helping. 

Reporting at Car Barn. Get to the car barn a few minutes 
before starting time so that new notices and instructions can 
be read. 

Inspection of Car. Inspect the car before running it. Look 
to the brakes, the controllers, the lights, the sanding and the 
breakers before going out. The time to discover trouble is 
before an accident happens. The shop people may say that a 
car is all right and they are responsible for it, but in case of 
accident they are not in danger of their lives and the motorman 
is. So take a look for yourself. 

Starting from Terminus. In starting from an end of the 
line, always give a gong signal so that the conductor and pas¬ 
sengers will not be taken off their balance and injured. See 
that no one is working under or near the car. 

Starling. In starting up do not throw the controller handle 


240 


over the first three or four notches suddenly. This is a com¬ 
mon trick among motormen and a bad one. The sudden 
rush of current is almost certain to throw the breaker out and 
result in a waste of time, and the sudden start of the car often 
throws passengers who may be standing and who have just 
cause for damages against the company. 

Also sudden starting uses up much more current than 
careful starting, and wears out the car more quickly besides 
breaking gears and axles. 

Landing Places. Be sure to select a place where persons 
can get on or off the car without danger of falling into some 
excavation at the side of the track, or being injured by other 
obstructions or incumbrances that may be there. 

Passing Obstructions. In passing a car on a siding be sure 
to see that the switch is properly set. Pass slowly so that if 
any one suddenly leaves the other car and passes in front of 
you, you will be able to make a quick stop. 

Gates and Chains. Platform gates and chains should be 
kept in the proper position: locked when they should be and 
open when they should be. When open they should be secured 
so that they will not swing out of place and cause some one to 
be caught while passing. 

Passing Teams. When passing a team near the track and 
going in the same direction, always slow down. Horses are 
liable to slip and fall, and drivers are notoriously careless about 
crossing the track in front of an approaching car. Do not ring 
the gong once, but keep doing it till the wagon has been passed. 
In case of an accident it is not a question of who was right and 
who wrong, but one of whether it could have been avoided or 
not by the motorman. 


241 


Car Ahead. In running behind another car always do so 
very slowly, because if you run into it, it will be your fault and 
no possible excuse will save you. If the brakes are not work¬ 
ing or the track is slippery, you should have known all about 
it before and not waited until you injured the car and pas¬ 
sengers. 

Wagon Ahead. The same precautions should be observed 
when a wagon is on the track in front of you as if it were a car. 
If you hit a wagon you will never hear the end of it. 

Crossing Streets. Always signal with the gong when a 
street crossing is approached. 

Conductor’s Signals. Never start the car on the first bell. 
Insist on getting two bells before starting. Very often the 
conductor rings the bell just as an unseen person attempts to 
board the car, and starting on the first bell would result in an 
accident. 

Spinning the Brake Handle. Some motormen are in the 
habit of releasing the ratchet and letting the brake handle spin 
around. This is a dangerous practice and may result in a 
broken arm or worse to a passenger standing near, or to the 
motorman himself. Besides, it is impossible to get hold of the 
handle before it stops, and if it is necessary to make a quick 
stop it will be impossible, until the brake handle can be gotten 
hold of. 

Switches. Always approach a switch slowly, and look at 
it to see that it is properly set. One of the worst accidents 
that ever happened occurred where a train at full speed took 
a curve owing to an open switch, when it was expected to keep 
on the main track. 

Curves. Always reduce speed on a curve. The curve is 


242 


not safe for high speeds, and it is impossible to see what may 
be on the track ahead. 

In Conclusion . Remember that the motorman is deeply 
interested in preventing accidents. It is of no consequence 
whatever how the accident was caused or whose fault it might 
have been if the motorman could have prevented it. The 
company is best satisfied by having no accidents whatever, as 
they cause loss of time and money, no matter who was to blame, 
and the man who serves his employer best is the man who best 
serves himself. No man is ever blamed for an accident that 
he could not have avoided, but the motorman is pretty sure 
to hear about it if he could have prevented the accident even 
if he had had the right of way. 

NEW YORK AIR BRAKE 
Principle of Operation 

The “Air Brake” provides means for generating power, and making 
it effective upon the wheels of each vehicle at practically the same instant 
of time. It is, in fact, an automatic appliance for quickly and safely 
stopping a railway train to suit conditions of service both usual and 
unusual. 

The engineer, by simple movements of a small handle in the cab, 
operates and has full control of the brakes under all circumstances within 
his knowledge, but their action is entirely automatic and independent of the 
engineer if the train breaks in two, a coupling hose bursts, or a similar 
accident occurs. On passenger cars, the brake can also be applied by any 
of the trainmen, if necessary. 

The “automatic” action is obtained by providing each vehicle with a 
supply of compressed air that is always ready for instant use, and by means 
of which the shoes are forced against the wheels, or withdrawn from them, 
as desired. This air supply, kept at a pressure of 70 lbs. per sq. in., is 




243 


stored in the reservoir upon each car, and in the train pipe connecting 
them, the apparatus being so constructed that a reduction of train-pipe 
pressure will apply brakes, and an increase (restoring what has been used) 
will release them. Ordinarily, this reduction of train-pipe pressure is 
made through the engineer’s valve, but if air is permitted to escape from 
the train-pipe by any cause , the brakes apply automatically. If the train 
breaks in two, this automatic action occurs upon both sections. 

The “quick action” is so called to distinguish its effect from the work 
which the brake performs in ordinary service. For instance, when stopping 
the train at stations, or otherwise as required in daily service, the engineer 
graduates the power upon the wheels, thus applying the brakes with what¬ 
ever force may be necessary, lightly or otherwise; but in an emergency, 
when life or property is in danger, the full brake power is instantly at work 
throughout the train, thus bringing it to a stop in the shortest possible 
distance. 


A Short Description 

The air compressed by the compressor is first delivered into the Main 
Reservoir. From there it flows to the Engineer’s Valve, and thence through 
the Train Pipe to the Triple Valve; passing through the latter into the 
storage tank or Auxiliary Reservoir upon each car. During normal con¬ 
ditions, the pipes and reservoirs therefore contain compressed air at 70 lbs. 
pressure. With the Engineer’s Valve, changes of Train Pipe pressure 
are made to operate the Triple Valves on each car, as described below. 

Moving the handle of Engineer’s Valve a certain distance allows air 
to escape from the Train Pipe and reduce the pressure therein. This re¬ 
duction of pressure operates the sensitive Triple Valve, which then permits 
air to flow from the Auxiliary Reservoir into the Brake Cylinder and force 
the piston of the latter in direction to apply brakes. 

To release brakes, the handle of Engineer’s Valve is returned to the 
proper position. This allows air from the Main Reservoir to again flow 
into the Train Pipe, increasing the pressure therein by replacing the air 
that had escaped. This increase of pressure causes the Triple Valve to 
reverse its previous movement and uncover an opening that permits the air 


244 


to escape from Brake Cylinder, and thus remove the pressure upon the 
wheels. 

To assist in raising the Train Pipe pressure quickly, and thus insure 
prompt release of the brakes by quick recharging of auxiliary reservoirs, 
the Main Reservoir air is kept at a pressure of 15 to 20 lbs. in excess of the 
pressure carried in Train Pipe. 


Trainmen 

1. Inspection. In making up trains, all couplings must be united so 
that the brakes will apply throughout the whole train. The angle cocks 
at the ends of the cars must be opened, except the one on the rear of the 
last car, which must be closed. Remember that straight cocks are open 
when handles are crosswise of pipe, and angle cocks are open when handles 
are parallel with pipe. 

Trainmen must see that all hand brakes are off before starting. 

2. Testing Brakes. After making up or adding to a train, or after 
a change of engines, the rear brakeman must ascertain whether the brake 
is connected throughout the train. The engineer must then test the brakes 
to insure of their being properly coupled, and in working order. If the 
train is provided with the air signal, the signals to apply or release brakes, 
in testing, should be made from rear end of train, to ascertain if the signal 
apparatus is in proper order. 

3. Brakes Sticking. If, after trying the brakes, it is found that one of 
the triple valves will not release, open the cock or release valve in the 
auxiliary reservoir until air begins to escape through triple valve port; 
then close it again. If the brake continues to give trouble, close the stop 
cock between the train pipe and the triple valve, thus cutting out the brakes 
on that car, and let air out of the reservoir by opening release valve. When 
the stop cock is open, the handle is crosswise of pipe, and when closed is 
parallel with pipe. Should the brake on the rear car be deranged, cut it 
out as described, but leave the angle cocks open between the last two cars, 
and hose connected. Should the train then happen to break in two at this 
point, the brakes will still be automatically applied before the two sections 
of the train have parted far enough to cause a serious collision. 


245 


4. At Stations , where it may be necessary to cut the train to take on, 
or leave cars, trainmen must not turn the angle cock or disconnect hose 
until the brakes have been released by the engineer. 

When coupling an engine to a train already charged with air, always 
open angle cock on the engine before turning the one on the car. If the 
latter is opened first, the sudden rush of air from train line into the empty 
hose will often cause an emergency application. By turning the cock on 
the engine first, no application will occur, and the unnecessary waste of 
air and loss of time to pump it up again is avoided. 

5. Frozen Couplings. When couplings are frozen together or covered 
with ice, the ice must first be removed, and then the couplings thawed out, 
to prevent injury to the gaskets. 

6. Use of Conductor’s Valve. When, in cases of extreme emergency, it 
becomes necessary to apply the brakes from the cars, the conductor’s 
valve must be kept open until the train is brought to a standstill. The 
valve must then be closed, otherwise the engineer cannot release the brakes. 
Accidents have been caused by improper use of the conductor’s valve, and 
the cases are very rare in which it should he used. 

The old form of conductor’s valve was self-closing. The modern form, 
which has been in use for several years, is a simple plug cock, and must be 
closed by hand before the brake can be released. 

7. Parting of Train. In case a train breaks in two, the brakeman 
should close angle cock on rear car of the section remaining attached to the 
engine, and then signal the engineer to release the brakes. When all the 
cars are again properly coupled up, but before letting the air into the rear 
of train, the brakeman should signal the engineer to apply brakes, which 
should be applied hard and left on until the brakeman opens the angle 
cock into rear section of train. When this is done the engineer will have 
regained control of the brakes in entire train, as before the break in two, 
and the necessity for releasing the air from each car, by hand, will thus be 
avoided. 

8. Burst Hose. Should the train be stopped by the bursting of a hose, 
proceed the same as in case of a break in two, and after replacing the broken 
hose test brakes carefully on the whole train. 

9. Hose Couplings. Dummy couplings or coupling hooks should be 


246 


attached at each end of cars, for hanging up the hose when not connected 
between them. Although opinions differ about the advisability of doing 
this, we recommend that, until contrary opinion is more unanimous, the 
practice of hanging up hose be continued. 

10. In Detaching Engines or Cars , both angle cocks must first be closed, 
to prevent the application of the brakes, and the couplings then parted by 
hand. 

11. Hand Brakes must always be set on cars left at intermediate 
stations. 

12. Brakes Set on Detached Cars can be released by opening the cock 
or release valve on auxiliary reservoir until the air begins to escape through 
triple valve port; then close the cock again. 

13. Defects. If any defect is discovered in the brake apparatus, which 
will affect its working, it must at once be made known to the engineer and 
all trainmen, in order that the train may be handled accordingly. 

14. Report to inspectors any car not in good working order. 


Inspectors 

1. Inspection. At terminal stations and division points there should 
be inspectors to see that air brakes are in good order and in proper adjust¬ 
ment. They should see that all pipes and joints are kept tight, and the 
rubber gaskets in couplings in good condition; and in passenger yards the 
inspectors should also examine the conductor’s valves, and car discharge 
valves of the Signal Apparatus, and see that they are kept tight. If de¬ 
sirable, the inspectors may perform the duty assigned to the trainmen. 

2. Care of Brake Cylinders and Triple Valves. The brake cylinders 
must always be kept clean, so that the brakes will release promptly when 
the air has been discharged, and the triple valves kept free from gum and 
dirt to prevent sticking. They should be examined, cleaned, and oiled 
about once a year; just how often depends upon the general care given 
the air-brake equipment, and the special conditions prevailing. 

New York freight car equipments have a T 7 g-inch hole drilled in the 
end of the hollow piston rod or sleeve, where it projects out of the end of 
the brake cylinder. To take out the piston, put through this hole a f-inch 


247 


bolt, or pin, long enough to extend about half an inch on each side of the 
sleeve, then ease off the nuts on the back head of the cylinder until the 
tension of the compressed spring is lessened, and pull out the piston, back 
cylinder head and spring all together. By using this hole as described, all 
danger of injury from the compressed spring is avoided, and it is not 
necessary to carry around horseshoe clamps or any other special devices. 

It is a good plan to stencil on cylinder with white paint the following 
lettering: 

Triple cleaned and oiled. 

and opposite these words to mark with chalk the dates of last cleaning and 
oiling. The above lettering is now cast on all freight car auxiliary reser¬ 
voirs. 

3. The Adjustment of Brake Gear should be such that, when the brakes 
are full on, the pistons will not have moved out over six inches. This will 
allow for wear of shoes, stretch of rods, etc. When taking up the slack in 
brake connections, see that levers and pistons are pushed back to their proper 
places , and the slack taken up with the dead levers or under connections. 

4. In Cold Weather, the water which collects in the triple valve should 
be drained frequently, by removing the plug in the bottom of the valve, 
which is provided for that purpose. 

5. Repair Parts. Inspectors must keep on hand for immediate use 
a supply of all parts liable to get out of repair, as well as tools necessary 
for making repairs. They should also carry extra triple valves to replace 
those that may get out of order, and triple valves removed should be sent 
to the Division Master Mechanic to be repaired. 



- 































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‘ 











LIST OF WORKS 


ON 

Electrical Science 

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D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 

23 Murray & 27 Warren Streets 

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